View the above photo record (by Jennifer Sterne) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Guttural Toad in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Bufonidae

GUTTURAL TOAD – Sclerophrys gutturalis

(Power, 1927)

Habitat

B. gutturalis inhabits various vegetation types in the Savanna, Grassland and Thicket biomes at altitudes ranging from sea-level to about 1800 m. In the east, the species is sometimes found in forest clearings and forest/grassland ecotones, while in the west it has a linear distribution along the wooded banks of the Gariep River.

These toads are opportunistic in their selection of sites for aestivation during winter. Quiescent toads have been found in termitaria and in the burrows of a large lizard, the Sungazer lizard Cordylus giganteus (Du Preez 1996).

Breeding takes place in open, shallow pools in rivers, farm dams, garden ponds, canals, ditches and borrow pits. During the day, the frogs take shelter under logs, rocks or other objects, in drain-pipes and gutters, in burrows, or in holes that they excavate in soft ground.

Behaviour

B. gutturalis is active from August to April, and occasionally during warm periods in winter. Breeding begins in small permanent water bodies, such as garden ponds, as soon as temperatures start to rise in spring, often before the first rains arrive. In areas where permanent water bodies do not exist, breeding is initiated by the first heavy spring rains. Dense choruses form, and the rolling, guttural snores of males can be heard from just after dark until well past midnight. Choruses may persist for several weeks, with a peak in late September to November, reviving after every rain shower until mid-February.

These toads usually call from partly concealed sites, although exposed sites are also used and calling males often seem oblivious to the presence of humans. Calling males exhibit site fidelity, with some individuals returning to the same site year after year. As many as 25 000 eggs, 1.4–1.5 mm diameter, are laid in two gelatinous strings, each 5 mm thick (Wager 1986). Strings of eggs are often twined around aquatic vegetation. Metamorphosis is complete after 5–6 weeks. As soon as the toadlets have developed front legs, they leave the water to hide on the bank until their tails are absorbed, and then start feeding on tiny insects. The maximum longevity, recorded in captivity, is seven years (Channing 2001).

At night they emerge from their shelters to prey on a wide range of insects, spiders and centipedes. In captivity, even lizards and other frogs have been recorded as prey items (Rose 1962). Individuals are often seen feeding on insects attracted to garden lights.

Adults are preyed on by the Black-necked Spitting Cobra Naja nigricollis, Common Night Adder Causus rhombeatus, Western Green Snake Philothamnus angolensis, Serrated Hinged Terrapin Pelusios sinuatus, and African Civet Viverra civetta (Channing 2001). The tadpoles are eaten by aquatic birds, fish and the Common Platanna Xenopus laevis.

Status and Conservation

B. gutturalis is relatively secure as it is widely distributed, locally abundant and highly adaptable to human settlement. It has been recorded in a number of national parks, provincial nature reserves and other protected areas. However, many individuals are killed by motor vehicles while crossing roads at night, especially during rain showers. On occasion, the toads are needlessly killed by people who are annoyed by their loud calls. The Eastern Cape lineage has a restricted distribution and further surveys are required in this area. Hybridization with B. rangeri occurs at scattered localities and may occur more frequently as a result of modern agricultural practices, but this does not seem to erode the differences between these species and is therefore not considered to be a threat.

Distribution

B. gutturalis is distributed from western Uganda eastward to coastal Kenya and southward through Tanzania, Zambia, Malawi, Mozambique, Zimbabwe and Botswana, to South Africa (Tandy 1972). In the atlas region, its distribution is centred in the northeast, particularly in the KwaZulu-Natal, Mpumalanga, Gauteng, central Limpopo, eastern North West, and northern and eastern Free State provinces, and Swaziland. In the Northern Cape Province, its distribution extends westward along the Gariep (Orange) River as far as Goodhouse (2818CC). The species also occurs in Lesotho and northern Eastern Cape Province, but is absent from Western Cape Province except for an introduced population that became established on the Cape Peninsula (3418AB) in recent years.

Earlier workers, including Hewitt (1935, 1937), Poynton (1964), Guttman (1967) and Tandy (1972), recorded B. gutturalis as far south as Port St Johns (3129DA) in Eastern Cape Province. However, during the atlas period several more southerly populations were found, for example, at Hluleka Nature Reserve and surroundings (3129CC, CD), Cwebe Nature Reserve (3228BB), Amalinda Fish Station (3227DD) and Cintsa district (3228CC) near East London. This suggests that the species is expanding its range southward along the east coast. Alternatively, this may simply be the result of a more systematic survey than in the past.

Recent genetic studies of mitochondrial DNA have identified three geographically distinct lineages of B. gutturalis in the atlas region, with additional lineages further north (M.C. pers. obs). One lineage occurs near the Botswana border in the Gaborone district (2425DA), but the extent of this lineage south and west of this area is unknown. A second independent lineage occupies the central area of the range, including KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumulanga provinces and Swaziland. An introduced population in Mauritius, established in the 1940s, originated from this second lineage. The third lineage in the atlas region is restricted to the Eastern Cape populations, and meets the second lineage at Port St Johns. Toads in this southeastern population are smaller than those elsewhere, which led Hewitt (1935) to suggest that they represent a separate subspecies.

B. gutturalis and B. rangeri hybridize at several localities. The hybrids can be identified by aberrant morphology, genetic analysis, and by the fact that their advertisement calls are intermediate in structure to those of their parents. Hybrids have been found at Groenkloof (2528CA), Weza (3029DB) and Port St Johns (3129DA; Guttman 1967; Passmore 1972; M. Cherry in litt.), while an additional four hybrid populations were discovered during atlas surveys at Harding (3029DA), Pietermaritzburg (2930CB), Jamestown (3027CC) and Lubuyane Falls, Swaziland (2631AA).

The absence of records of B. gutturalis in parts of Northern Cape Province and Lesotho is probably due to inaccessibility of these areas rather than to real gaps in distribution. Apart from these limitations, the atlas data are reliable and reasonably comprehensive.

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Gorrelskurwepadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

du Preez LH, Weldon C, Cunningham M, Turner A, Tippett RM.  Guttural Toad Sclerophrys gutturalis. BDI, Cape Town.

Available online at http://thebdi.org/2021/11/25/guttural-toad-sclerophrys-gutturalis/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

du Preez LH, Weldon C, Cunningham M, Turner A 2004 Sclerophrys gutturalis Guttural Toad. In Minter LR et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

View the above photo record (by Bart Wursten) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Southern Foam Nest Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Rhacophoridae

SOUTHERN FOAM NEST FROG – Chiromantis xerampelina

Peters, 1854

Habitat

The species inhabits a variety of bushveld vegetation types in the Savanna Biome. Breeding usually takes place in temporary pans and vleis, but also occurs in more permanent water bodies such as dams and quarries. In the absence of trees and shrubs, nests may be attached to the sides of large rocks or man-made structures overhanging water, including bridges, culverts and bird hides.

Behaviour

In summer, these frogs are often seen perched on the branches of trees overhanging or near water, and their white, crusty nests, c.20 cm in diameter, are conspicuous around dams, pans and vleis and along river and stream courses.

In the winter months, they seek shelter under the bark of trees, in rock cracks and on the branches of shady evergreen trees far from the nearest water. They also move into buildings where they take up residence for weeks, or even months, on rafters, walls and windowsills, or behind bookcases and picture frames.

C. xerampelina is adapted in several ways to survive in an arid environment. It possesses a rough, dry skin, and conserves water by means of rectal water re-absorption and by excreting nitrogenous waste in the form of uric acid (Coe 1974). Inactive individuals may be found perched in exposed positions on branches of trees and shrubs where their colour becomes chalky white or pale grey to reflect light and heat.

The males gather at suitable nesting sites at night where they produce soft, discordant croaks and squeaks. They do not appear to be territorial, and two or more frogs close together, or even on top of each other, will call irregularly and independently.

The female leaves the water and climbs up to the nesting site where amplexus with one of the males takes place. Nest construction begins when the female releases an oviducal secretion from her cloaca and churns it into a white foam with her hind legs. Peripheral males take up positions on either side of the amplexing pair and attempt to position their cloacae adjacent to that of the female during bouts of oviposition. Thus the female’s eggs are fertilized by more than one male (Jennions et al. 1992). Neither the amplexing male nor the peripheral males participate in the construction of the foam nest.

The nest may take up to seven hours to complete, and nest construction is split into 2–4 sessions. Between sessions, the female leaves the nest site and returns to the water to rehydrate. At this time, the amplexing male may dismount and, on returning to the nest, the female may amplex with a different male (Jennions et al. 1992). Communal nests, involving two or more females and numerous males, are commonly formed. One such nest contained 50 males and 20 females (Passmore and Carruthers 1995). The female usually returns the following night and adds a second layer of foam (not eggs) to the top of the nest. Males seldom attempt amplexus on the second night; if they do, they soon release the female and leave (M.D. Jennions pers. comm.).

Jennions et al. (1992) recorded a mean clutch size of c.1200 eggs for single-female nests. Once the eggs hatch within the nest, the tadpoles rely on bubbles in the foam for oxygen (Seymour and Loveridge 1994). After 4–6 days, the wriggling tadpoles begin to move downward within the nest, sometimes in a wet squirming mass of several tadpoles or in ones and twos, until they reach the bottom (Wager 1986). It is thought that these movements and the accumulation of tadpoles at the bottom of the nest softens the crust, thereby enabling the tadpoles to drop into the water below where they complete their development. Egg development within a foam nest may serve to avoid or reduce predation in the early stages of tadpole development. However, in some cases, the water below the nest recedes, and the tadpoles drop onto the ground and perish.

Chiromantis xerampelina is preyed upon by arboreal snakes such as the Vine Snake Thelotornis capensis and Boomslang Dispholidus typus. The eggs are eaten by Samango Monkeys Cercopithecus mitis (Rödel et al. 2002) and the Greater Leaf-folding Frog Afrixalus fornasinii (Drewes and Altig 1996).

Status and Conservation

This widespread species is not threatened. Much of the natural habitat of C. xerampelina is used for game or stock farming and it occurs in numerous private and public protected areas.

Distribution

C. xerampelina is widely distributed in eastern and southern Africa. In the atlas region it ranges from Mafikeng (2525DC) in the North West Province, eastward through most of Limpopo Province and southward through the eastern lowveld of Mpumalanga and Swaziland to Empangeni (2831DD) in KwaZulu-Natal. In South Africa, the species occurs from near sea level in KwaZulu-Natal (Lambiris 1989a) to 1200 m in the former Transvaal (Jacobsen 1989).

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Grootgrysskuimnespadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

Boycott RC, Theron J, Tippett RM.  Southern Foam Nest Frog Chiromantis xerampelina. BDI, Cape Town.
Available online at http://thebdi.org/2021/11/24/southern-foam-nest-frog-chiromantis-xerampelina/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

Boycott RC, Theron J 2004 Chiromantis xerampelina Southern Foam Nest Frog. In Minter LR et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

View the above photo record (by Nick Evans) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Pickersgill’s Reed Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Hyperoliidae

PICKERSGILL’S REED FROG – Hyperolius pickersgilli

Raw, 1982

Identification

H. pickersgilli is a small- to medium-sized Hyperolius species that reaches a snout–vent length of 22.3 mm in males and 28.5 mm in females (Raw 1982). The sexes are morphologically distinct.

Males and juveniles are light to dark brown, often with small black spots on the dorsum, and a dark-edged, white to silver, dorsolateral stripe extending from the tip of the snout, over the eye, to the groin. The lower surfaces of the limbs are yellow, while the abdomen and throat are yellowish to white. Adult males have a bright yellow gular sac.

As females mature, the dorsal colouration becomes a brilliant light to yellowish green and the dorsolateral stripe disappears, although a dark canthal streak from nostril to eye is sometimes present. The flanks are off-white to brownish white, and are distinctly demarcated from the dorsal colouration by an irregular margin. The ventrum is light yellow to white.

The males of H. argus, a sympatric species, possess a similar dark-edged, dorsolateral stripe, but the snout is less pointed and the thighs and concealed portions of the hands and feet are brown to orange or orange-red. H. pickersgilli females can be distinguished from H. tuberilinguis by the distinct border that separates the dorsal and lateral colouration in the former. H. pickersgilli is also substantially smaller than both H. tuberilinguis and H. argus (Raw 1982; Lambiris 1989a; Passmore and Carruthers 1995; Channing 2001).

Male H. pickersgilli produce unusually soft, cricket-like calls at irregular intervals. The call structure, with reference to published calls, is as follows: emphasized frequency: 3–3.3 kHz; duration: 0.1–0.7 s; number of pulses: 5–30; pulse rate: 50–100/s (Raw 1982; Passmore and Carruthers 1995). This variation may be partly due to a difference in the temperature at which the recordings were made (not indicated by the authors). A larger call sample, corrected to a common temperature, is required before a satisfactory description of the advertisement call can be given.

Habitat

H. pickersgilli inhabits Coastal Bushveld-Grassland, where it breeds in marshy areas containing dense stands of Saw Grass Cyperus immensus. The water at breeding sites is stagnant and rarely exceeds 50 cm in depth.

Behaviour

The behavioural ecology of H. pickersgilli in the non-breeding season is unknown. Calling takes place August–March, and froglets have been collected from late January to early March. Males call from elevated positions, well concealed in dense stands of sedges Cyperus spp.

A gelatinous mass of about 50 eggs is attached to vegetation, several centimetres above the water (Raw 1982). About one week later, tadpoles drop out of the egg mass into the water.

Raw (1982) noted that this species often occurs in sympatry with several other hyperoliids that also lay their eggs out of water, and speculated that this choice of oviposition site represents an adaptation to breeding in stagnant water with a low oxygen content.

Status and Conservation

Status

H. pickersgilli has been listed as Rare (Branch 1988) and as Vulnerable (IUCN 2000). Its status was raised to Endangered in view of its small area of occupancy (<500 km²), severe fragmentation of its habitat, and evidence of a continuing decline in the area of occupancy, extent and quality of habitat, and number of locations (Harrison et al. 2001; this publication).

H. pickersgilli occurs in the following protected areas: Greater St Lucia Wetland Park, Umlalazi Game Reserve and Twinstreams-Mtunzini Natural Heritage Site. Outside of these areas it is protected by the KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Ordinance, No. 15 of 1974, as amended. It is listed as a species of importance in KwaZulu-Natal (Goodman 2000).

Threats

The major threats to H. pickersgilli are ongoing habitat loss and fragmentation as a result of drainage for agricultural and urban development. The pollution of breeding sites in the vicinity of human settlements by DDT, which has been re-introduced to control malaria vectors, also poses a serious threat. Increase in human habitation and changes in land use are likely to have additional negative effects on the habitat, including the spread of alien vegetation.

Recommended conservation actions

A thorough distribution survey and a study of the life history and habitat requirements of this species are recommended. Known breeding habitats should be protected and monitored (Harrison et al. 2001).

Management recommendations include habitat management, limiting factor management, public education and monitoring programmes. This species often occurs in relatively small, stagnant ponds, which are more likely to be drained by landowners and municipalities than are larger wetlands. The public should be made aware of the importance of preserving these small pockets of breeding habitat.

Distribution

H. pickersgilli is endemic to KwaZulu-Natal, ranging from west of Kingsburgh (3030BB) in the south, along the coastal lowlands to St Lucia (2832AD) in the north. At least eight subpopulations (sensu IUCN criteria) are known (Harrison et al. 2001). The species is secretive, inconspicuous and easily overlooked: for example, at Twinstreams-Mtunzini Natural Heritage Site (2831DD), an area where frogs have been extensively studied for the past 25 years, this species escaped notice until fairly recently. Thus, although the area of suitable breeding habitat is relatively small, surveys may reveal additional populations.

It is interesting to note that this species is seldom found at the same breeding sites as H. marmoratus.

The atlas data may be regarded as reliable, but incomplete.

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Pickersgill se rietpadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

Bishop PJ, Tippett RM.  Pickersgill’s Reed Frog Hyperolius pickersgilli. BDI, Cape Town.
Available online at http://thebdi.org/2021/11/24/pickersgills-reed-frog-hyperolius-pickersgilli/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

Bishop Pj 2004 Hyperolius pickersgilli Pickersgill’s Reed Frog. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

View the above photo record (by Michael Adams) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Red Toad in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Bufonidae

RED TOAD – Schismaderma carens

(Smith, 1848)

Identification

Habitat

This species inhabits a wide variety of vegetation types, primarily in the Savanna biome, but is also found in Grassland vegetation types, such as Rocky Highveld Grassland in Gauteng (Poynton and Broadley 1988; Lambiris 1989a). It breeds in deep, muddy pools or dams in these habitats.

Behaviour

When not breeding, S. carens has been found in caves, mine adits, burrows, and under stones, logs and piles of dead vegetation. It often enters houses, taking shelter in cupboards, plant pots, drawers and other unexpected places (Poynton and Broadley 1988; Jacobsen 1989; Lambiris 1989a). Individuals have even been found 2 m from the ground in trees. This toad seems to emerge earlier in spring and remains active later in autumn than most other summer-breeding species (Jacobsen 1989).

Breeding occurs in summer, usually at the peak of the rainy season. Calling has been recorded October–January in the Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve in Gauteng (Carruthers and Carruthers 1979). The low, booming call is produced while floating in water with limbs outstretched. Calling usually occurs at night but also on overcast, humid days. A large breeding aggregation at Hans Merensky Nature Reserve called throughout the night, laying their eggs in the early hours of the morning. By dawn, amplexing pairs were still present at the site but no egg-laying was observed (L.R.M. pers. obs.). Eggs are laid in double strings (cf. Stewart 1967) entwined around submerged vegetation. Estimates of egg numbers vary from about 2500 to 20 000 (Rose 1962; Stewart 1967; Passmore and Carruthers 1995; Channing 2001).

Tadpoles exhibit shoaling behaviour, forming dense clusters, 10–15 cm in diameter, that slowly move through the water, possibly aiding feeding by stirring up the substrate and creating a suspension of food particles (Wager 1965; Pienaar et al. 1976; Passmore and Carruthers 1995). This shoaling behaviour does not appear to deter predators as there are many records of fish, terrapins, birds and aquatic insects and their nymphs or larvae feeding avidly on these swarms (Pienaar et al. 1976; Channing 2001.). An interesting feature of the tadpole is the horseshoe-shaped fold of skin that extends backwards from behind the eyes to the middle of the body. This structure has a respiratory function, demonstrated by the fact that it is larger in tadpoles that are reared in polluted water with a low oxygen content. Under these conditions the tadpoles swim close to the surface (Charter and MacMurray 1939; Channing 2001).

Amplexus between S. carens and Bufo poweri has been observed in the wild (Power 1926a), but Blair (1972) was unable to induce artificial fertilization between these species. Given the great phylogenetic divergence between Schismaderma and Bufo, it seems unlikely that successful hybridization actually occurs and museum specimens identified as hybrids are probably anomalous individuals.

Status and Conservation

S. carens is not threatened. It occurs in numerous protected areas, including the Kruger National Park and adjacent private nature reserves, the Sandveld and Suikerbosrand nature reserves, and the Greater St Lucia World Heritage Area. Even in disturbed areas it adapts well to human habitation, occurring commonly in suburban gardens and homes. The ability of the tadpole to survive in polluted water favours its survival in human settlements, but adults and juveniles are often killed by traffic on roads.

Distribution

The Red Toad occurs from southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo and Tanzania, southward to Botswana, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. In the atlas region, S. carens is found from Vryburg (2624DC) in North West Province, eastward through the northern Free State, Gauteng, Limpopo Province, northern and eastern Mpumalanga and Swaziland, and southward throughout KwaZulu-Natal to Port Edward (3130AA). Within this area the species appears to be absent from the relatively cool highveld grasslands between Wakkerstroom and Dullstroom in Mpumalanga, and the relatively hot and dry Limpopo River valley.

The species cannot be confused with any other toad species and has a particularly characteristic call. The atlas data are reliable.

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Rooiskurwepadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

Theron J, Minter LR, Tippett RM.  Red Toad Schismaderma carens. BDI, Cape Town.
Available online at http://thebdi.org/2021/11/24/red-toad-schismaderma-carens/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

Theron J, Minter LR 2004 Schismaderma carens Red Toad. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

View the above photo record (by Jean Hirons) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Striped Stream Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Pyxicephalidae

STRIPED STREAM FROG – Strongylopus fasciatus

(Smith, 1849)

Identification

Habitat

S. fasciatus inhabits a variety of vegetation types in the Forest, Fynbos, Thicket, Grassland and Savanna biomes. It occurs in well-watered areas with annual rainfall >500 mm, and it is rarely found far from permanent water (Greig et al. 1979). It ranges mainly through the summer-rainfall region, but extends into the winter-rainfall region in the southwest.

In montane grassland, these frogs seem to prefer grassy areas and reed beds along streams and rivers and around natural vleis. They are also found in well-vegetated man-made dams and ponds and along irrigation canals. They can tolerate disturbance and have been found in urban parks and gardens, and at dams surrounded by alien vegetation, in commercial forestry plantations.

Behaviour

Breeding takes place mainly in winter, and seems to be associated with a drop in temperature. The first calls are usually heard in mid- to late February, but there are records of calling as early as January (pers. obs.). In Swaziland, peak calling occurs in March, April and May, and calling activity ceases in November (pers obs.). Outside the winter months, sporadic calling may be triggered by a cold front moving through the subcontinent. In the KwaZulu-Natal midlands, strong choruses have been heard in midsummer (M. Burger pers. comm.).

At some breeding sites only a few calling males may be present, while at others, large choruses may form with calling males separated by only a few centimetres. Males call from the water’s edge or from elevated positions in reeds and grass.

The eggs are laid singly in shallow water on the edges of grassy pools, streams and man-made dams. They soon gather debris and become difficult to see. Although clutch size is not recorded for S. fasciatus, a clutch of 64 eggs was recorded for S. fuelleborni in Malawi (Stewart 1967), and another of 44 eggs for the closely related S. bonaespei of the Western Cape Province (Cunningham and Henderson 2000). This suggests that S. fasciatus does not lay large clutches of eggs. Tadpoles reach metamorphosis in 4–5 months (Wager 1986).

Status and Conservation

S. fasciatus is widespread and common and is not threatened. It often occurs in remote mountainous areas, but also survives in suburbia and other human-altered habitats, and appears to benefit from agricultural activities (Greig et al. 1979).

Distribution

S. fasciatus is found in the wetter, relatively temperate parts of the atlas region. Its range extends from Bonnievale (3320CC) in the Western Cape Province, eastward through the Eastern Cape Province to coastal KwaZulu-Natal, and inland to Lesotho and the Drakensberg escarpment of Mpumalanga and Limpopo provinces and Swaziland. It has a sporadic distribution in the high-altitude grasslands of the eastern Free State, Gauteng, North West and Limpopo provinces (Greig et al. 1979; Jacobsen 1989). The species frequently occurs at sea level, but many inland populations, for example in Swaziland, appear to be restricted to altitudes above 1100 m (pers. obs.).

North of the atlas region, S. fasciatus is found in highland areas of Zimbabwe, Zambia and Mozambique (Channing 2001).

This species is easily identified by its call. The atlas data are reliable and reasonably complete. The absence of recent records from summer-rainfall regions, such as Limpopo Province, may be due to inadequate surveying during the species’ winter breeding period.

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Gestreepde langtoonpadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

Boycott RC, Tippett RM.  Striped Stream Frog Strongylopus fasciatus. BDI, Cape Town.
Available online at http://thebdi.org/2021/11/24/striped-stream-frog-strongylopus-fasciatus/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

Boycott RC 2004 Strongylopus fasciatus Striped Stream Frog. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

View the above photo record (by Cornelia Rautenbach) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Banded Stream Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Pyxicephalidae

BANDED STREAM FROG – Strongylopus bonaespei

(Dubois, 1980)

Identification

Habitat

S. bonaespei typically inhabits Mountain Fynbos but is sometimes found on the margins of forest. It seldom occurs on steep slopes or in deep kloofs, preferring flatter, more open situations near streams. Annual rainfall in these areas is >500 mm.

Breeding takes place in shallow, seasonal, marshy areas and seepages that are well vegetated, usually with long grasses, stands of restios and sometimes ferns.

Although this species has been recorded from remnants of natural fynbos vegetation in a pine plantation (Greig et al. 1979), it occurs mainly in natural fynbos habitats and appears to be intolerant of disturbance.

Behaviour

S. bonaespei breeds mainly in winter but also calls in spring and late summer if conditions are suitable. In the southwestern Western Cape Province, breeding mostly takes place from May to early August. However, calling activity has been recorded up to mid-September, and intense calling has been heard as early as February (A.L. de V. pers. obs.).

Although dense breeding choruses have been heard in ideal conditions, especially early in the breeding season, the calls are usually scattered with calling males well spaced from one another. During a 45-minute period in the late afternoon, 20 active S. bonaespei adults were captured in a 70×35 m area of seepage (Greig et al. 1979). Males have been found calling from ground level at the base of overhanging vegetation near the water’s edge, and from 10–20 cm above ground level, spread-eagled between tall grass stems (Greig et al. 1979). Although these calling positions were noted at night, calling activity appears to be mainly diurnal. Observations at one site indicate peak calling activity around sunset with only occasional calls heard during the night (Cunningham and Henderson 2000).

The eggs are laid out of water on waterlogged earth or moss at the base of, for example, a restio or grass tussock, within about 5–20 cm of temporary pools or shallow runnels of water in seepage areas. The eggs are laid singly and may either be scattered, grouped in clusters, or deposited in rows of up to six or seven eggs. The clutch size is 39–104 eggs (Greig et al. 1979; Cunningham and Henderson 2000; A.L. de V. pers. obs.). Each egg is encased in a jelly capsule c.7 mm in diameter. The eggs develop into benthic tadpoles that complete their metamorphosis in water.

Status and Conservation

S. bonaespei is not threatened. It is relatively widely distributed and most of its habitat occurs in protected areas. These include the Cederberg, Grootwinterhoek, Boosmansbos wilderness areas, Limietberg, Hottentots Holland, Kogelberg, Grootvadersbosch, Maanschynkop, De Hoop, Outeniqua nature reserves, Tsitsikamma Forest, Agulhas and Cape Peninsula national parks, and others.

Threats to individual populations include invasive alien vegetation, tree plantations, wildflower farming, alteration of drainage patterns, too-frequent fires, building developments such as roads and dams, and urban encroachment in certain coastal areas. The most extensive of these threats is probably the spread of invasive alien vegetation that eliminates fynbos vegetation and reduces water resources. The control of invasive alien vegetation is the responsibility of the nature conservation authorities for the respective protected areas.

Distribution

S. bonaespei is endemic to the atlas region. Its distribution is restricted almost entirely to the mountain ranges of the Western Cape Province, extending marginally into the Eastern Cape Province. It is distributed from Hoogvertoon (3219AC) in the Cederberg in the north, to the southern foothills of the Soetanysberg (3419DD) in the south, and from the Cape Peninsula (3318CD, 3418AB, AD) in the west, to the Witelsbos Forest Reserve (3324CC) in the Tsitsikamma Mountains in the east.

Although S. bonaespei occurs mainly in mountainous areas, it has been found at a wide range of altitudes, from 10 m near the mouth of the Voëlgat River east of Hermanus, to 1670 m near Waaihoek Peak in the Hex River Mountains (Greig et al. 1979).

The atlas data are reliable and reasonably complete.

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Gebande langtoonpadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

de Villiers AL, Boycott RC, Tippett RM.  Banded Stream Frog Strongylopus bonaespei. BDI, Cape Town.
Available online at http://thebdi.org/2021/11/23/banded-stream-frog-strongylopus-bonaespei/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

de Villiers AL, Boycott RC 2004 Strongylopus bonaespei Banded Stream Frog. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

View the above photo record (by Johan Kritzinger) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Namaqua Stream Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Pyxicephalidae

NAMAQUA STREAM FROG – Strongylopus springbokensis

Channing, 1986

Identification

S. springbokensis resembles S. grayii in overall shape, but in profile it has a sharper snout. In S. springbokensis, the foot length is less than twice the head width, whereas in S. grayii it is more than twice the head width. The dorsum is yellowish brown with darker markings edged in dark brown. A narrow vertebral stripe is often present. Breeding males have small spines along the back of their legs and webbing develops along the margins of their fingers, making them broad and paddle-shaped (Channing 2001).

The advertisement call of S. springbokensis consists of a series of 2–7 notes with a total duration of 1.17 s (7 notes; Channing 2001). The call is easily distinguishable from the short clicking call of S. grayii. Aggression and male release calls are also produced.

Habitat

In relatively low-lying areas, S. springbokensis inhabits Upland Succulent Karoo vegetation in the Succulent Karoo Biome, while on the mountains it occurs in North-western Mountain Renosterveld of the Fynbos Biome. These areas receive annual rainfall of <60 mm. In this arid environment, these frogs are restricted to the proximity of springs, seeps, small permanent and non-permanent streams and artificial impoundments.

Behaviour

At the start of the winter rains, males begin calling from well-concealed call sites, usually some distance from water. The eggs are laid out of water, in the vicinity of the calling male. They are deposited under rocks or in rock crevices, tunnels in vegetation, or rodent burrows. Development is arrested after the tadpole’s eyes and tail are well formed. Tadpoles remain at this stage until rain floods the nest and then emerge from the egg capsules to continue their development in the water (Channing 1986).

Status and Conservation

Status

S. springbokensis was assigned to the category Data Deficient (Harrison et al. 2001) but was subsequently re-assessed and raised to Vulnerable (this publication). This decision was based on the results of additional atlas surveys that confirmed the limited and fragmented nature of the species’ distribution and the threats to its habitat. The species is distributed among at least four subpopulations (sensu IUCN criteria): Springbok, Richtersveld, Ghaamsberg and Kammiesberg. The habitat of each subpopulation is fragmented.

S. springbokensis occurs in Richtersveld National Park.

Threats

S. springbokensis is threatened by habitat loss which is expected to continue at the rate of <20% over the next 30 years. Increased grazing pressure, destruction of vegetation around breeding sites, siltation of streams, and pollution were identified as specific threats. A local threat in Springbok (the town for which this species is named) is the conversion of the type locality, an old reservoir in the town, to a duck pond, with the subsequent disappearance of this species from the site.

Recommended conservation actions

Additional distribution surveys and monitoring of populations at known breeding sites are recommended. Research aimed at identifying limiting factors should be conducted so that the habitat can be managed appropriately.

Distribution

S. springbokensis is endemic to the Northern Cape Province of South Africa. It is distributed from the Gariep (Orange) River valley southward through Namaqualand to Garies (3018CA), and as far east as Aggenys (2918BD). Altitude ranges from 200–1600 m. Distribution data are difficult to collect as the breeding sites are not obvious and are often inaccessible. The atlas data are reliable but probably incomplete.

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Namakwa-langtoonpadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

Channing A, Tippett RM.  Namaqua Stream Frog Strongylopus springbokensis. BDI, Cape Town.
Available online at http://thebdi.org/2021/11/23/namaqua-stream-frog-strongylopus-springbokensis/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

Channing A 2004 Strongylopus springbokensis Namaqua Stream Frog. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

View the above photo record (by Darren Pietersen) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Knocking Sand Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Pyxicephalidae

KNOCKING SAND FROG – Tomopterna krugerensis

Passmore & Carruthers, 1975

Identification

Habitat

T. krugerensis inhabits the Savanna Biome at altitudes ranging from sea level to 1500 m, in areas with annual rainfall of 500–>1000 mm. It seems to prefer sandy soils and breeds in temporary water bodies such as large and small pans, vleis, and floodplains.

Behaviour

Breeding begins after the first rains and continues into midsummer. Males call from the open or from partially concealed positions at the water’s edge. Approximately 5000 eggs are laid singly in shallow water (Passmore and Carruthers 1975). The tadpoles and details of development are unknown.

Status and Conservation

T. krugerensis is widespread and does not require conservation measures.

Distribution

T. krugerensis is distributed in a broad band across southern Africa, from northeastern South Africa and southern Mozambique, through southern Zimbabwe and Botswana to Namibia and southern Angola. Its distribution in the atlas region is rather patchy, especially in Limpopo and North West provinces. This may be due to the fact that only distribution records based on advertisement calls have been included in the map. It is almost indistinguishable, morphologically, from T. cryptotis and T. tandyi, but has an easily recognizable call. The distribution records are therefore reliable in terms of the present taxonomic status and diagnosis of this species. The southernmost record is from Hluhluwe (2832AB) in KwaZulu-Natal.

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Sandveld-sandpadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

Channing A, Tippett RM.  Knocking Sand Frog Tomopterna krugerensis. BDI, Cape Town.
Available online at http://thebdi.org/2021/11/23/knocking-sand-frog-tomopterna-krugerensis/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

Channing A 2004 Tomopterna krugerensis Knocking Sand Frog. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

View the above photo record (by Nick Evans) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Mistbelt Moss Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Pyxicephalidae

MISTBELT MOSS FROG – Anhydrophryne ngongoniensis

(Bishop & Passmore, 1993)

Identification

The small size of the adult frog (16–22 mm), coupled with the softness of its call, probably explain why this species remained undetected until fairly recently. Males produce a soft, trilled, cricket-like call, repeated three or four times with an interval of about one second between calls. The call consists of 8–10 pulses with a duration of 55 ms, and the frequency at the midpoint is 4.5 kHz (Bishop and Passmore 1993; Passmore and Carruthers 1995). Males call in bouts of up to seven calls, often alternating with an adjacent male.

The dorsal colouration is fairly consistent with no sexual dimorphism, being a sandy to golden brown background with four indistinct stripes composed of small dark brown spots. A broad, dark brown stripe (bordered ventrally and dorsally by a thin white/silvery stripe) begins at the tip of the snout and passes through the nostril, eye and tympanum to end at the axilla. The belly is white, while the ventral surfaces of the limbs and throat are pale yellow.

Habitat

The breeding and non-breeding habitat is in Short Mistbelt Grassland, Moist Upland Grassland, and Afromontane Forest. Preferred sites are located on fairly steep slopes (30–40°) on either side of seepage channels, covered with a dense growth of indigenous grasses, but at Ngele the species occurs in Afromontane Forest. Most of the known sites are surrounded by exotic tree plantations. The frogs are usually found at the bases of grass and sedge tussocks amongst a network of loose tunnels in the humus layer.

Behaviour

In misty weather, males call throughout the day and night, but only during the night in less humid conditions. During the day males call from well concealed positions at the bases of grass tussocks, while at night they climb to calling positions about 20 cm below the tips of the grass stems and are easily seen. Males do not possess a vocal sac and produce a quiet call. Eleven to 14 unpigmented eggs are laid on damp soil or vegetation at the bases of grass tussocks. The tadpoles undergo direct development, emerging as fully formed froglets approximately 27 days after egg laying (Bishop and Passmore 1993).

Although there are no documented accounts of predators, these are likely to include snakes, other frog species and invertebrates, while prey includes ants, termites, insect larvae, and other small invertebrates characteristic of the grassland leaf litter.

Status and Conservation

Status

In the description of this species, the authors (Bishop and Passmore 1993) recommended that it be classified Vulnerable. Harrison et al. (2001) and this publication list it as Critically Endangered in view of its small area of occupancy (<10km2), rapid rate of habitat loss (>50% over the past 50 years) and an estimated global population size of less than 2500 individuals in six fragmented and isolated sub-populations.

A. ngongoniensis occurs in the Ngele Forest Reserve and is protected by the KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Ordinance, No. 15 of 1974, as amended.

The population at Poortjie, east of Franklin, occurs on land under management of Singisi Forest Products. The conservation importance of the site was brought to the attention of this tree-farming company, that has responded positively by appointing a consultant to draw up a management plan and monitoring protocol. The largest known population of Leptopelis xenodactylus (Endangered) also occurs at this site, which was therefore highlighted as one of the most important frog localities in the Eastern Cape/KwaZulu-Natal region (cf. Burger and Harrison 2002). Efforts were underway as of January 2003 to obtain permanent protection for the site, the first initiative in South Africa to establish a nature reserve specifically for the protection of frogs.

Threats

The major threat to A. ngongoniensis is habitat loss and fragmentation due to afforestation and other agricultural practices. The ongoing encroachment of alien trees and plantations is likely to alter moisture regimes, and the presence of quantities of woody vegetation can cause lethally hot fires, presenting a potential threat. Timber harvesting, which can drastically alter habitat over a short period of time, also presents a potential future threat.

In addition, all the grassland types in which this species occurs are poorly conserved, and in the absence of fire, Afromontane forest and grassy fynbos may invade these grasslands (Bredenkamp et al. 1996).

Recommended conservation actions

Urgent conservation action was recommended by Harrison et al. (2001) as rapid deterioration or loss of its habitat could easily lead to the extinction of this species. A population and habitat viability assessment was recommended. In addition, the remaining protected areas of moist upland grasslands, such as the Coleford and Himeville nature reserves, should be intensively searched for new populations of this species.

Management recommendations include the establishment of a monitoring programme, and management of wild populations, habitat and limiting factors. In view of an extremely restricted and fragmented distribution, priority should be given to the conservation and management of the remaining habitat of this species before it becomes extinct.

Distribution

A. ngongoniensis is endemic to a small area of mistbelt on the eastern escarpment in KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape where it occurs at altitudes in excess of 1000 m. At the time of the species’ description (Bishop and Passmore 1993), it was known from only three localities in the Ixopo region, all within a single quarter-degree grid cell (3030AA). Although another three localities in three different grid cells were discovered during the atlas period, the species’ area of occupancy still appears to be restricted to less than 10 km². The new localities are Ngele Forest Reserve near Weza (3029DA), Poortjie in the Mpur forestry area east of Franklin (3029BC), and south of Donnybrook (2929DD). Even the predicted distribution of this species does not extend its range significantly (Armstrong 2001). The atlas data are reliable.

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Mistbelt Chirping Frog; Ngongoni Moss Frog (Alternative Common Names); Misbeltkwetterpadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

Bishop PJ, Tippett RM.  Mistbelt Moss Frog Anhydrophryne ngongoniensis. BDI, Cape Town.
Available online at http://thebdi.org/2021/11/19/mistbelt-moss-frog-anhydrophryne-ngongoniensis/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

Bishop PJ 2004 Anhydrophryne ngongoniensis Mistbelt Moss Frog. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

View the above photo record (by Robert Tibbitt-Eggleton) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Karoo Toad in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Bufonidae

KAROO TOAD – Vandijkophrynus gariepensis

A. Smith, 1848

Habitat

V. gariepensis has been recorded from the Nama Karoo, Succulent Karoo, Fynbos, Thicket and Grassland biomes and occurs in both summer- and winter-rainfall regions. It is adapted to survive in extremely arid areas and, in at least parts of its range, it can tolerate very low temperatures. On the Nuweveldberg Mountains in Karoo National Park, specimens were observed moving about in the snow; these frogs may have been disturbed and forced to seek shelter in new refuges (H. Braack pers obs.).

The species is found in a variety of habitats, including open, sandy areas in the semi-arid Karoo, and grassland in the eastern parts of its range. In the Free State and most of Lesotho, it occurs in mountainous and rocky areas where it may be found under rocks, in burrows under rocks, and occasionally in abandoned termitaria(Trinervitermes sp.). At high elevations in the KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg, V. g. nubicolus occurs in short, sparse, open grassland where specimens have been found under vegetation or stones, in swampy areas, and in temporary pools.

Breeding habitats include a variety of water bodies, both permanent and temporary, such as streams, dams, roadside rain pools, quarries, pans, seepages and spongy bogs. The species has even been found breeding in water-filled hoof prints of cattle in the Drakensberg, and in a small pool under a leaking tap at Sendelingsdrift in the Richtersveld!

Behaviour

In Namaqualand, V. gariepensis is an opportunistic breeder. Most breeding takes place during the winter rains, but also during summer if sufficient water is available (Channing 1988). It has been recorded spawning in September and February in the Western Cape (Visser 1979a), and breeds in late summer and autumn in the summer-rainfall Karoo and Bushmanland (H. Braack pers. obs.). Tadpoles were collected during September in both Worcester (Western Cape) and near Harrismith (Free State), while in the Richtersveld, calling was heard September–March (H. Braack pers. obs.). In Lesotho, V. g. gariepensis tadpoles were collected in early October and in November and December in pools and at the sides of streams (new atlas data). Males may call during daylight hours in overcast or rainy weather, as well as at night.

Wager (1965) recorded the following breeding details for V. g. nubicolus. Strands of 100 or more eggs are laid in small shallow depressions in sponge-like bogs fed by springs on the summit of the Drakensberg. The tadpoles form a squirming mass and grow to a maximum length of 24 mm after only a few days. According to Lambiris (1988e), metamorphosis is usually completed after c.20 days.

In the Drakensberg Mountains, prey consists of small arthropods (Lambiris 1988e). Two specimens of V. gariepensis that were offered to a captive Water Mongoose Atilax paludinosus, were flipped over onto their backs and eaten from the belly, presumably to avoid toxins in the dorsal glands: one specimen was partly eaten while the second was entirely consumed (Stuart 1981).

Status and Conservation

V. gariepensis is recorded from Mountain Zebra National Park in the Eastern Cape, Gamka Nature Reserve in Western Cape Province (Branch 1990) and Richtersveld National Park in Northern Cape Province (Branch and Braack 1995). It also occurs in Karoo National Park at Beaufort West and in Karoo Nature Reserve at Graaff Reinet. In the Free State it has been recorded from Golden Gate Highlands and Qwa-Qwa national parks and Tussen-die-Riviere Game Farm (Bates 1997). Although it has not been found in Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve in Mpumalanga, it occurs nearby in Long Tom Pass.

V. gariepensis has an extensive distribution range and is abundant, but some isolated populations may be speciating. Branch and Braack (1995) noted that “a detailed study of vocalization, supplemented with biochemical analysis, of montane isolates of V. g. nubicolus and V. g. inyangae may demonstrate a suite of cryptic species”. These isolated populations should be considered evolutionarily significant units, warranting protection and regular monitoring.

Distribution

V. gariepensis is distributed mainly south of 28°S and west of 30°E, but its range extends northward along the Transvaal Drakensberg range, through Mbabane in northwestern Swaziland, to the Lydenburg-Sabie area of Mpumalanga Province (2530BA). Atlas records indicate that the species has a much larger range in the Northern Cape Province than is shown on Poynton’s (1964) map.

Outside of the atlas region, the species crosses the Gariep (Orange) River (often reduced to a trickle in the dry season) into southern Namibia, while an isolated population is present on the Nyanga Mountains in eastern Zimbabwe. The advertisement call of the latter, V. gariepensis inyangae, is unknown, but based on mitochondrial-DNA sequences, Cunningham and Cherry (2000) considered it to be a distinct species.

The subspecies V. gariepensis nubicolus occurs along the summit of the KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg from Mont-aux-Sources (2828DD) southward to Sani Pass (2929CA) and to Naude’s Nek (3028CA) in the southwest. It occurs at altitudes up to c.3400 m. Although specimens from this area differ consistently from typical V. g. gariepensis in certain ways, most notably in colour pattern (see Passmore and Carruthers 1995), the same characters are of less diagnostic value in populations from the eastern Free State (Bates 1995) and Lesotho (Bates and Haacke 2003).

While populations from Mpumalanga and Swaziland were treated as V. gariepensis gariepensis by Poynton (1964) and Boycott (1992), Jacobsen (1989) referred populations in Mpumalanga to V. g. nubicolus. Branch and Braack (1989) referred to two ecomorphs occurring in Karoo National Park, namely a “brightly-patterned nubicola form from the upper plateau” and “more typical gariepensis that is larger and duller in colour, from the lower plains”. Branch and Braack (1995) suggested that V. g. nubicolus be raised to species status and that certain isolated montane populations, currently referred to V. g. nubicolus (e.g., Bamboesberg Mountains 3126CA; Nuweveldberg Mountains, Karoo National Park 3222BC), may prove to be separate species. Further investigation is needed to clarify these issues.

In the Richtersveld, V. gariepensis occurs along the banks of the Gariep River, while a similar species, V. robinsoni, inhabits springs and temporary water sources. However, the latter has a substantially different advertisement call and, in this area, can also be distinguished from V. gariepensis by its orange back with green spots, poorly developed parotoid glands, weakly developed tarsal fold, small tympanum, relatively smooth skin, and relatively large eye (Branch and Braack 1995).

In Namaqualand, V. robinsoni loses the bright colouration that is typical of the species in the rocky Richtersveld and Ghaamsberg areas, and approaches the drab colour and pattern generally attributed to V. gariepensis. Conversely, juvenile V. gariepensisin rocky habitats frequently show the bright colour patterns attributed to V. robinsoni (H. Braack pers. comm.). In this area the two species may be positively identified by their advertisement calls. At Nieuwoudtville (3119AC), V. gariepensis and V. angusticeps have been found breeding in the same pools, and are extremely difficult to separate except by call (H. Braack pers. obs.).

The atlas data for V. gariepensis is reliable, except in areas of sympatry with V. robinsoni and V. angusticeps where records based on identification using morphology alone should be viewed with circumspection.

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Karooskurwepadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

Bates MF, Tippett RM.  Karoo Toad Vandijkophrynus gariepensis. BDI, Cape Town.
Available online at http://thebdi.org/2021/11/19/karoo-toad-vandijkophrynus-gariepensis/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

Bates MF 2004 Vandijkophrynus gariepensis Karoo Toad. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.