Cover photo by Gerhardt Diedericks.

Find the Northern Forest Rain Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Brevicepitidae

Identification

The Northern Forest Rain Frog occurs in parapatry with the Bushveld Rain Frog (Breviceps adspersus) throughout its range. The subspecies B. s. sylvestris occurs in sympatry with the Mozambique Rain Frog (Breviceps mossambicus), which occupies montane grassland adjacent to forest patches along the escarpment. There is also a possibility that B. s. sylvestris occurs in sympatry with the Plaintive Rain Frog (Breviceps verrucosus) between Legalameetse and Mariepskop.

The granular texture and mottled markings on the skin of the abdomen, and the presence of a pair of longitudinal glandular ridges on the dorsum, distinguish both B. sylvestris and B. verrucosus from B. adspersus and B. mossambicus, which have a smooth, immaculate abdomen and lack dorsal skin ridges. The advertisement calls of B. sylvestris and B. verrucosus consist of a series of long, evenly spaced, pulsed whistles, averaging 0.36 and 0.61 s in duration, respectively. In Comparison, those of B. adspersus and B. mossambicus are much shorter (0.08 and 0.2 s in duration, respectively) and often emitted in groups of two, three, or more calls within a bout of calling (Minter 1998).

In the Northern Forest Rain Frog, the tympanum is indistinct and, in most cases, cannot be distinguished from the surrounding granular skin. In B. verrucosus it is usually smooth and fairly obvious. B. sylvestris is further characterized by a broad, light margin to its down-turned mouth, giving its face a clown-like appearance. The advertisement calls of B. sylvestris and B. verrucosus are very similar, differing only in duration (see above) and call rate: 69 and 22 calls per minute, respectively (Minter 1998).

Habitat

The habitat of the Northern Forest Rain Frog is Afromontane Forest and the adjacent North-eastern Mountain Grassland. In the breeding season, males call from closed-canopy forest, forest fringe, and adjacent open grassland in mountainous terrain. Calling males have also been encountered in disturbed habitats such as wooded parks and gardens, and in pine plantations on the edge of indigenous forests. In winter, specimens have been found under rocks and logs in indigenous forest (Minter 1998).

Behaviour

The Northern Forest Rain Frog constructs an extensive network of shallow, horizontal tunnels and chambers below the soil surface and under rocks and logs (pers. obs.). The dry winter months are spent underground, but rain at this time of year may result in surface activity and some calling. Aestivation, involving the production of a cocoon, has not been observed.

Most breeding takes place after rain in early spring, that is, September to October, but continues into early December (Minter 1998). In wet, misty weather, large choruses develop and continue, unchecked, for several consecutive days and nights.

At night, during rain or heavy mist, males call while moving about on the surface, sometimes climbing to an elevated position on a grass tuft or herbaceous plant. During the day, in wet weather, they call from well-concealed, shallow depressions beneath leaf litter (Minter 1998). Amplexus is adhesive and nests are constructed below the surface, at the base of a rock, log, or amongst tree roots. Thompson (in Wager 1965) recorded a mass of 56 eggs covered by a layer of infertile eggs; the female remained in a tunnel adjoining the egg chamber until the young were fully developed, and removed soil that fell onto the egg-mass. Jacobsen (1989) found a female with an egg-mass in November.

Prey items have not been documented but probably include various invertebrates characteristic of the forest floor.

Status and Conservation

Status

The Northern Forest Rain Frog was not listed in earlier South African Red Data books (McLachlan 1978; Branch 1988) but was listed as Near Threatened by Harrison et al. (2001). Reassessment for this publication has placed it in the Vulnerable category based on the species’ severely fragmented and restricted distribution (area of occupancy: 501–2000 km), rate of habitat loss (>20% in the last 50 years), and predicted population decline (>20% in the next 30 years).

The Northern Forest Rain Frog occurs in the following provincial nature reserves: Blouberg, Blouberg-Maleboch, Happy Rest, Thabina, Lekgalameetse; state forests: Entabeni, Hanglip, Woodbush, and Black Forest; and the Wolkberg Wilderness Area. It is protected by the Limpopo Province Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism Conservation Ordinance 12 of 1973, and the National Forests Act 19408 of 1998, Section 7. Outside of the relevant areas, it is unprotected except for collecting and export control.

Threats

The major threats to the Northern Forest Rain Frog are habitat loss and fragmentation due to afforestation and other agricultural practices. These activities also impact negatively on the quality of the remaining habitat by reducing the quantity of surface and soil water and altering natural fire regimes in adjacent areas. Water and fire are key limiting factors that influence the distribution and extent of Afromontane Forest patches (Low and Rebelo 1996). The networks of roads developed to sustain these agricultural activities also fragment previously continuous areas of suitable habitat. Road kills during the breeding season are believed to contribute significantly to population declines.

Recommended conservation actions

A detailed survey should be carried out to identify the location and size of all the remaining populations of this endemic, restricted-range species. A study of the extent to which the two subspecies of B. sylvestris have diverged genetically, and a similar comparison between B. sylvestris and B. verrucosus, would further clarify the conservation status of this species.

Management recommendations include habitat and limiting factor management and the establishment of a monitoring programme, both inside and outside reserves. In view of the restricted distribution of B. sylvestris, priority should be given to the conservation and management of the remaining indigenous forests and grasslands, the breeding habitats of this, the only frog species endemic to Limpopo Province.

Distribution

The Northern Forest Rain Frog is endemic to Limpopo Province, where it occurs on the slopes and crests of the Blouberg, Soutpansberg, Wolkberg, and Drakensberg ranges. It is locally abundant, but its distribution is restricted to isolated fragments of its natural habitat that have not yet been subjected to afforestation or other forms of agriculture. The subspecies B. s. sylvestris is recorded from Haenertsburg (2329DD), eastward to Tzaneen (2330CC), and southward along the eastern escarpment as far as Legalameetse Nature Reserve (2430AB), while B. s. taeniatus occurs in the Soutpansberg Mountains from Blouberg (2328BB) eastward to Thoyandou (2230CD). The two subspecies are geographically isolated by about 80 km of unsuitable habitat.

Legalameetse, with the southernmost recorded population of B. sylvestris, is separated by a distance of about 70 km from the northernmost recorded population of B. verrucosus, at Mariepskop (2430DB). The area separating these species is rugged and rather inaccessible and was not sampled during the atlas project. However, it contains suitable breeding habitat and should be surveyed to determine whether the two species occur in sympatry.

The existing atlas data are reliable, as the Northern Forest Rain Frog is easily identified by its appearance and its call. However, further sampling is required in areas of suitable habitat within the limits of its known range.

Further Resources

The use of photographs by A. Coetzer and Gerhardt Diedericks is acknowledged.

Northern Forest Rain Frog Breviceps sylvestris FitzSimons, 1930

Other Common Names: Transvaal Rain Frog, Forest Rain Frog (Alternative English Names); Transvaal Woudblaasoppadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format: Minter, LR; Tippett, RM. (2025). Northern Forest Rain Frog Breviceps sylvestris. Biodiversity and Development Institute, Cape Town. Available online at https://thebdi.org/2022/02/03/northern-forest-rain-frog-breviceps-sylvestris/

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas: Minter, LR. (2004). Northern Forest Rain Frog Breviceps sylvestris. In Minter LR et al 2004.

References: 

Minter, LR; Burger, M; Harrison, JA; Braack, HH; Bishop, PJ; Kloepfer, D. (Editors). (2004). Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

Carruthers, V; du Preez, L. (2017). Frogs of southern Africa: A Complete Guide. Struik Nature, Cape Town.

Channing, A. (2001) Amphibians of Central and Southern Africa. Protea Book House, Pretoria

Claus, B; Claus, R. (2002). Common Amphibians and Reptiles of Botswana. Gamsberg Macmillan, Windhoek.

Similar Species

Plaintive Rain Frog (Breviceps verrucosus)

Bushveld Rain Frog (Breviceps adspersus)

Mozambique Rain Frog (Breviceps mossambicus)

Cover photo by Ryan van Huysteen.

Find the Sand Rain Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Brevicepitidae

Identification

The Sand Rain Frog

Habitat

The Sand Rain Frog occurs in coastal lowlands and lower slopes in the Fynbos and Thicket biomes; it does not extend into the Succulent Karoo Biome to the north. It inhabits sandy substrates in Dune Thicket and probably in Limestone Fynbos and Sand Plain Fynbos, although occurrence in the latter two veld types, sensu stricto, requires confirmation. This species occurs in well-vegetated areas and is not recorded from unstable dunes, or places where a coastal plain is absent and Mountain Fynbos descends to the coast. The sandy substrate along the Breede River serves as a passage along which B. rosei occurs at least as far inland as Bontebok National Park (3420AB), where it is found in riverine thicket along the banks of the river (H. Braack pers. obs.).

Behaviour

Little is known of the biology of the Sand Rain Frog. Aestivation probably takes place during the dry season. This species also produces a cocoon to protect itself against dessication (Channing 2001).

Calling occurs both at night and during the day, mainly during and after rain showers in winter and spring (June–November). Dense mist may be sufficient to trigger calling (pers. obs.). Males have been observed to call from elevated positions in bushes and sedges, up to a meter above the ground (FitzSimons 1946; Channing 2001; pers. obs.). When disturbed, these individuals will sometimes drop to the ground and lie still (FitzSimons 1946; H. Braack pers. comm.).

Adhesive amplexus lasts for four or five days and the male assists the female in burrowing into the sand with movements of his feet (Channing 2001). Other details of breeding are not known.

Status and Conservation

The Sand Rain Frog is not threatened at present. However, much of its habitat has been, and continues to be, destroyed by coastal and agricultural development and by the spread of invasive alien vegetation, especially Rooikrans Acacia cyclops. The species does use alien thickets, especially on Robben Island (Crawford and Dyer 2000), but it is not known how the population densities of frogs in indigenous and alien vegetation compare.

Given the species’ narrow distribution range, it is clear that its populations are vulnerable to fragmentation and local extinction. In view of the current lack of clarity regarding the status of B. r. rosei and B. r. vansoni, they should be considered separately in assessments of conservation needs. Adequate protection could be afforded by a series of coastal reserves. In the west, the Sand Rain Frog is known from the West Coast and Cape Peninsula national parks and the Rocher Pan Nature Reserve, and in the south from the De Hoop and De Mond nature reserves, and Bontebok National Park.

Distribution

The Sand Rain Frog has a coastal distribution; nowhere does the species occur more than 45 km inland. The distribution extends from Lambert’s Bay (3218AB) on the west coast, to Gouritsmond (3421BD) on the south coast. An aural record from Wilderness (3422BB) requires confirmation (H. Braack pers. comm.). The species is common on Robben Island (3318CD; Crawford and Dyer 2000).

Some authors follow Poynton (1964) in recognizing two subspecies, that is, B. r. rosei northwest of False Bay, and B. r. vansoni east of False Bay, on the basis of differences in colour pattern, but these differences do not appear to be consistent (Passmore and Carruthers 1995). Field and molecular studies are required to clarify the status of these taxa.

The atlas data for this species is incomplete along the south coast.

Further Resources

The use of photographs by JK. Boyce, Ryan van Huysteen, and Trevor Hardaker is acknowledged.

Sand Rain Frog Breviceps rosei  Power, 1926

Other Common Names: Rose’s Rain Frog; Rose’s Short-headed Frog (Alt. English); Rose se Blaasoppadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format: Harrison, JA; Tippett, RM. (2025). Sand Rain Frog Breviceps rosei. Biodiversity and Development Institute, Cape Town. Available online at https://thebdi.org/2022/02/02/sand-rain-frog-breviceps-rosei/

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas: Harrison, JA. (2004). Sand Rain Frog Breviceps rosei. In Minter LR et al 2004.

References: 

Minter, LR; Burger, M; Harrison, JA; Braack, HH; Bishop, PJ; Kloepfer, D. (Editors). (2004). Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

Carruthers, V; du Preez, L. (2017). Frogs of southern Africa: A Complete Guide. Struik Nature, Cape Town.

Channing, A. (2001) Amphibians of Central and Southern Africa. Protea Book House, Pretoria

Claus, B; Claus, R. (2002). Common Amphibians and Reptiles of Botswana. Gamsberg Macmillan, Windhoek.

Similar Species

Cape Rain Frog (Breviceps gibbosus)

Cover photo by Eloise Costandius.

Find the Cape Mountain Rain Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Brevicepitidae

Identification

Like all Breviceps species, the Cape Mountain Rain Frog has a stout, rounded body and short legs. The eyes are small to medium-sized, and the tympanum is not visible. The dorsal surface is dark with large, pale paravertebral patches fused into a band with dark, wavy edges. The undersides are white with dark markings concentrated around the throat. The Cape Mountain Rain Frog has a prominent dark facial mask that runs from the eye to the base of the arm.

Habitat

The Cape Mountain Rain Frog is restricted to the Fynbos Biome, and usually occurs in Mountain Fynbos vegetation. However, it is also known from altered habitats such as pine plantations. It is usually found on coarse, acidic, sandy soils, but it is also known from heavier, shale-derived soils. It generally occurs at high altitudes but is also found at sea level in areas where mountains reach the coast (e.g. Betty’s Bay 3418BD). In such coastal situations it appears to be restricted to fynbos vegetation and is not found in coastal thicket (cf. B. rosei).

Behaviour

Despite a relatively extensive distribution in the Western Cape, little is known about the biology of the Cape Mountain Rain Frog. Calling occurs both at night and during the day, usually during and after rain showers in winter and spring (June–November). Dense mist may also be sufficient to stimulate calling. Channing (2001) collected a female with large eggs in October, and recorded calling activity in January. Males have been found calling from vegetation above ground level (Visser 1979d) or while moving about on the surface (L.R. Minter pers. obs.). The breeding biology is assumed to be similar to that of other members of the genus.

Status and Conservation

The Cape Mountain Rain Frog occurs in relatively undisturbed montane habitat and is found within several protected areas. The Cape Mountain Rain Frog is not threatened and is probably secure for the foreseeable future.

Distribution

This diminutive species occurs widely in the Cape fold mountains of the Western Cape Province, from northeast of Clanwilliam (3118DD), to the Outeniqua Mountains in the southeast (3323CC). On the Cape Peninsula it occurs with B. gibbosus in some localities, and to the east its range coincides, in part, with that of B. acutirostris and B. fuscus.

The Cape Mountain Rain Frog probably occurs in several relatively inaccessible mountainous areas not surveyed during the atlas period. The eastern limits of its distribution, in particular, are not yet certain.

Further Resources

The use of photographs by Eloise Costandius, Keir Lynch, and Zenobia van Dyk is acknowledged.

Cape Mountain Rain Frog Breviceps montanus Power, 1926

Other Common Names: Mountain Rain Frog (Alt. English); Kaapse Bergblaasoppadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format: Harrison, JA; Tippett, RM. (2025). Cape Mountain Rain Frog Breviceps montanus. Biodiversity and Development Institute, Cape Town. Available online at https://thebdi.org/2022/02/01/cape-mountain-rain-frog-breviceps-montanus/

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas: Harrison, JA. (2004). Cape Mountain Rain Frog Breviceps montanus. In Minter LR et al 2004.

References: 

Minter, LR; Burger, M; Harrison, JA; Braack, HH; Bishop, PJ; Kloepfer, D. (Editors). (2004). Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

Carruthers, V; du Preez, L. (2017). Frogs of southern Africa: A Complete Guide. Struik Nature, Cape Town.

Channing, A. (2001) Amphibians of Central and Southern Africa. Protea Book House, Pretoria

Claus, B; Claus, R. (2002). Common Amphibians and Reptiles of Botswana. Gamsberg Macmillan, Windhoek.

Similar Species

Sand Rain Frog (Breviceps rosei)

Cover photo by Dave Maguire.

Find the Desert Rain Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Brevicepitidae

Identification

The Desert Rain Frog is a squat, rotund frog with short limbs and large, prominent eyes. The interorbital distance is about half the horizontal diameter of the eye (Poynton 1964). A sample of 10 specimens excavated from dunes at Port Nolloth had a mean snout–vent length of 34.5 mm (unpubl. data); Poynton (1964) recorded a maximum body length of 48.5 mm. Fleshy webbing is present between the fingers and toes, and sub-articular tubercles on the fingers are absent or weakly developed (if present, they are single, not double, cf. B. namaquensis).

The dorsum is light yellowish-brown, variably marked with fine, dark brown speckles or larger vermiculations that sometimes form a border around a pair of large, light patches in the scapular region. The ventrum is white with a large, central, unpigmented area through which the abdominal muscles, blood vessels and other internal organs can be seen.

The advertisement call is a single, long, low-pitched whistle. Calls recorded at Port Nolloth had an emphasized frequency of 1200 Hz rising slightly to 1300 Hz. They varied between 1.2 and 2.5 seconds in duration (cf. Channing 2001) and were repeated at relatively long intervals (10 seconds to 15 minutes), depending on the chorus intensity (unpubl. data). The calls were lower in emphasized frequency and much longer than those of B. namaquensis (see species account).

Habitat

The Desert Rain Frog is restricted to Strandveld Succulent Karoo, in the Succulent Karoo Biome. It inhabits sand dunes vegetated by low, succulent shrubs and other xerophytes. These plants usually cover the crests of the dunes, which are separated by open areas of bare sand. The dunes are mostly formed by white, calcareous sand, but reddish dunes occur at some localities where the species is known to occur, for example, alongside the Holgat River (De Villiers 1988c). Annual precipitation is less than 50 mm at Alexander Bay (Low and Rebelo 1996), and 43–146 mm at Kleinsee (Channing and Van Wyk 1987). Coastal fog is common in this region.

Behaviour

Calling and/or surface activity has been recorded in almost all months of the year, usually during and following fog (Channing and Van Wyk 1987; De Villiers 1988c; Passmore and Carruthers 1995; S. Hanrahan pers. comm.; pers. obs.). Males call from the surface, sometimes excavating a slight depression in the sand, or moving from one call site to another while foraging (unpubl. data). The distance between calling males may be as little as 1 m, and choruses are apparently organized (Channing 2001). Calling is inhibited by dry, warm weather, but not by low temperatures (S. Hanrahan pers. comm.; pers. obs.). Amplexus, oviposition and development have not been recorded.

When not active on the surface, Desert Rain Frogs burrow downwards into the sand up to 27cm below the surface. L.R.M. (unpubl. data) excavated 10 specimens at depths of 12.5–27 cm below the surface. In all cases the “burrows” were located in low, unvegetated areas between dunes, and the frogs were found in a layer of sand that was moist enough to form a ball when compressed by hand. This moist layer was both covered and underlain by dry sand and appears to be a reservoir of water, maintained by rain and fog. The frogs were found 2–4 cm below the upper boundary of the moist layer. The temperature drops rapidly below the surface (e.g. at midday the surface temperature was 38.3°C, but decreased to 20.5°C at 10 cm below the surface). The temperature of the sand surrounding the frogs ranged from 17.6–20.7°C.

Analysis of scats revealed that prey items include beetles and ants (Channing and Van Wyk 1987). While tracking frogs on the surface, Carruthers and Passmore (1978) found signs of activity around dung and suggested that the frogs were feeding on insects attracted to the dung. An adder, Bitis schneideri, was recorded as a predator at Lüderitz (Haacke 1975).

Status and Conservation

Status

The Desert Rain Frog was previously listed as Restricted (Branch 1988), Vulnerable (IUCN 2000) and Near Threatened (Harrison et al. 2001). Reassessment for this publication determined a status of Vulnerable, based on a restricted distribution (area of occupancy: 501–2000 km²), extensive loss of habitat to strip mining (present and projected), and a predicted population decline (>50% in the next 30 years). 

The Desert Rain Frog does not occur within any protected areas. However, a process is currently under way to proclaim the Orange River mouth at Alexander Bay a protected area. The species is protected in terms of the Cape Nature Conservation Ordinance 19 of 1974.

Threats

The major threat to the Desert Rain Frog is habitat loss and fragmentation due to strip mining. The development of roads, increasing pressure from human populations and changing land use (e.g., increasing grazing, recreational use of dunes by off-road vehicles, e.g., at McDougall’s Bay) pose additional threats.

Recommended conservation actions

A detailed survey to identify the location and size of the remaining populations of B. macrops and the extent to which its habitat has been fragmented, is essential. Possible recolonization of mined-out and/or rehabilitated areas should be investigated. A study of the reproductive biology of the species is necessary to determine its fecundity and longevity, and limiting-factor research will facilitate effective management.

Management recommendations include the establishment of a long-term monitoring programme inside and outside the mining concessions, and limiting factor management. In view of the restricted distribution of B. macrops, priority should be given to the establishment of conservation areas within the range of this species. Such reserves are also needed to protect the unique ecology, fauna and flora of this area.

Distribution

Beyond the atlas region, the Desert Rain Frog occurs in the southern coastal dunes of Namibia, from Lüderitz southward to Oranjemund.

In the atlas region, B. macrops occupies a narrow coastal strip along the northwestern Namaqualand coast, from Alexander Bay (2816CB) southward as far as the farm Skulpfontein north of Koingnaas (3017AB). It ranges from close to the high-water mark (Channing and Van Wyk 1987), to 10 km from the coast (S. Hanrahan pers. comm.). Distribution data for this species are scarce, as much of the area it occupies lies within diamond-mining concessions and is not easily accessible.

The atlas data are reliable, but are restricted mainly to areas lying outside the mining concessions, and are therefore incomplete.

Further Resources

The use of photographs by Alison Sharp, Dave Maguire, and Gary Kyle Nicolau is acknowledged.

Desert Rain Frog Breviceps macrops Boulenger, 1907

Other Common Names: Melkpadda, Woestyn-blaasoppadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format: Minter, LR; Tippett, RM. (2025). Desert Rain Frog Breviceps macrops. Biodiversity and Development Institute, Cape Town. Available online at https://thebdi.org/2022/01/28/desert-rain-frog-breviceps-macrops/

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas: Minter, LR. (2004). Desert Rain Frog Breviceps macrops. In Minter LR et al 2004.

References: 

Minter, LR; Burger, M; Harrison, JA; Braack, HH; Bishop, PJ; Kloepfer, D. (Editors). (2004). Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

Carruthers, V; du Preez, L. (2017). Frogs of southern Africa: A Complete Guide. Struik Nature, Cape Town.

Channing, A. (2001) Amphibians of Central and Southern Africa. Protea Book House, Pretoria

Claus, B; Claus, R. (2002). Common Amphibians and Reptiles of Botswana. Gamsberg Macmillan, Windhoek.

Similar Species

Namaqua Rain Frog (Breviceps namaquensis)

Cover photo by Ockert van Schalkwyk.

Find the Cape Rain Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Brevicepitidae

Identification

The Cape Rain Frog is the largest Breviceps species in South Africa. Females are noticeably larger than males and can attain 80mm in length. Like all rain frogs, the body is rotund with short legs. The head is also short with a flat face and small, dark eyes. The dorsal surface is dark brown with a pale paravertebral band, or a row of pale paravertebral patches. The facial mask is fairly indistinct and runs from the eye to about half way to the front leg. The underside is strongly mottled in brown and cream. Both the upper and undersides are very granular and readily help to identify this species.

Habitat

Most localities where the Cape Rain Frog occurs have fine-grained, heavy substrates (loamy soils and clays) derived from shales or granites, which is the substrate associated with West Coast Renosterveld. This veld type occurs in winter-rainfall areas with annual precipitation of 300–600 mm. Less than 3% of the original extent of this veld type still exists, mainly as a consequence of crop agriculture, principally wheat (Low and Rebelo 1996). The remaining renosterveld is now severely fragmented, with the largest fragments being located on hills and mountain slopes, where B. gibbosus is usually found. However, this species is not recorded from all renosterveld fragments, of which many have not yet been surveyed for the species. It is therefore difficult to make a definitive statement about the link between B. gibbosus and this particular vegetation type. It may be that this species was always more common in well-drained upland situations, or possibly in more wooded situations where ground temperatures are moderated. The Cape Rain Frog also occurs in disturbed and altered habitats, such as pine plantations and suburban gardens. It is virtually absent from the sandy areas of the Cape Flats (De Villiers 1988b), but in gardens it has been found in sandy substrates where it appears able to flourish (J.A.H. pers. obs.). Its occurrence in some of these suburban situations is probably the result of the transportation of topsoil for use in gardens.

Behaviour

The Cape Rain Frog survives the long, dry summers by aestivation underground. Individuals produce a thin cocoon around themselves, with nostrils plugged and body inflated (Channing 2001). Calling commences with the first winter rains (late April) and continues through to November. Calling occurs day and night in wet weather. Calling peaks at the beginning of winter and in spring, from late August to October (A.L. de Villiers pers. comm.), suggesting that warmer temperatures stimulate calling. Although calling usually occurs during and after rain showers, it sometimes precedes the rain by a few hours (J.A.H. pers. obs.; R. Boycott pers. comm.), suggesting that this species may be able to detect the drop in barometric pressure that occurs in advance of a frontal weather system. Poynton and Pritchard (1976) noted a similar apparent connection between barometric pressure and surface activity in B. adspersus and B. verrucosus.

Male Cape Rain Frogs call from the surface, that is, they have never been observed calling from elevated perches as in some other Breviceps species. Calling males are usually well hidden under vegetation, in shallow depressions in the substrate (L.R.M. pers. obs.). As in other Breviceps species, adhesive amplexus is employed when mating (Gow, in Wager, 1965). In dense choruses, males will attempt to clasp any moving object in the vicinity, including other males. On one occasion, a compact mass comprising six males clinging to one another, was seen rolling slowly down a slope (L.R. Minter pers. comm.). Rose (1962) was given a B. gibbosus pair and egg-cluster of about 30 eggs taken from “a cavity five inches across by three inches high, ten inches below the surface”, while Gow (in Wager, 1965) unearthed a pair with 19 young, in May. McLachlan (1978) recorded nests that contained 13 and 22 young. An adult pair, placed in an outdoor enclosure in early October, produced a nest of 18 froglets (12–13 mm in length) that were discovered emerging on 6 May the following year (A.L. de Villiers unpubl. data).

Status and Conservation

Status

The Cape Rain Frog was previously listed as Vulnerable (McLachlan 1978; Branch 1988) and Near Threatened (Harrison et al. 2001). Reassessment for this publication has placed it in the Vulnerable category, based on a restricted extent of occurrence and area of occupancy, an inferred drastic reduction and fragmentation of its range by urban and agricultural development (mainly 50–100 years ago), and ongoing pressure on local populations by increasing density of suburban development and the possibility that some of its renosterveld habitat may yet be put under the plough. Note that this assessment is made despite the fact that its range is now more extensive than previously known: the localities north of Piketberg were discovered only during the atlas period. The Cape Rain Frog occurs in the Cape Peninsula National Park, Tygerberg, Paarl Mountain and Voëlvlei nature reserves, and Elandsberg Private Nature Reserve (near Hermon). The species is legally protected by Nature Conservation Ordinance 19 of 1974. At present, B. gibbosus is not listed by CITES.

Threats

The primary threat to the Cape Rain Frog is the further destruction of both its habitat and local populations by agricultural and urban development. Fragmentation of its habitat by urban development has resulted in numerous relatively isolated populations in parks and gardens, and these are generally not protected. The long-term viability of these urban fragments is, at best, uncertain. Many individuals attempting to cross roads are killed, thus limiting inter-population gene flow. It is not known to what extent agricultural chemicals, such as pesticides and herbicides, have affected local populations, but the apparent absence of animals from most renosterveld fragments in the Swartland, north of Cape Town, suggests that this may have been an important negative factor in the past.

Recommended conservation actions: The remaining populations of Cape Rain Frogs on the Cape Peninsula and in other urban centres, such as Stellenbosch and Paarl, should be documented in detail and afforded as much protection as is feasible. The long-term viability of fragmented urban populations should be assessed through monitoring of selected populations. Public education programmes could be a useful approach for protecting such an interesting and charismatic species. Where land developments threaten local populations, the potential for translocations of animals should be investigated. Populations that still exist in relatively undisturbed renosterveld habitat should be given special protection together with the habitat, especially as so little virgin renosterveld remains. The potential for reintroducing the species into conserved renosterveld fragments, especially those incorporating uplands, should be investigated. The Cape Rain Frog is one of the species included in the Western Cape Nature Conservation Board’s threatened species monitoring programme (De Villiers 1997a).

Distribution

The Cape Rain Frog is a Western Cape endemic and occurs from the central Cape Peninsula in the south, to west of Citrusdal in the north. Its range does not extend into the mountain ranges to the east of the Cape Flats and the Swartland, but it does occur patchily on the slopes of Table Mountain, Devil’s Peak and Wynberg Hill on the Cape Peninsula (3318CD, 3418AB), the inselbergs of Paarlberg (3318DB, DD) in the Boland, Perdeberg (3318DB) and Piketberg (3218DC) in the Swartland, and in the Olifants River Mountains (3218DB). Surprisingly, several other likely upland localities, such as the Kasteelberg (3318BD), have not yet yielded records.The atlas data are reliable and reasonably complete at the level of the quarter-degree grid cell. Some of the renosterveld-covered hills in the wheat-farming area of the Swartland north of Cape Town, contain suitable habitat for this species but have not yet been adequately surveyed.

Further Resources

The use of photographs by Felicity Ellmore, Felicity Grundlingh, and Ockert van Schalkwyk is acknowledged.

Cape Rain Frog Breviceps gibbosus (Linnaeus, 1758)

Other Common Names: Giant Rain Frog (Alternative English Name); Kaapse Reënpadda, Aartappelpadda, Kaapse Janblom (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format: Harrison, JA; Minter, LR; Tippett, RM. (2025). Cape Rain Frog Breviceps gibbosus. Biodiversity and Development Institute, Cape Town. Available online at https://thebdi.org/2022/01/28/cape-rain-frog-breviceps-gibbosus/

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas: Harrison, JA; Minter, LR. (2004). Cape Rain Frog Breviceps gibbosus. In Minter LR et al 2004.

References: 

Minter, LR; Burger, M; Harrison, JA; Braack, HH; Bishop, PJ; Kloepfer, D. (Editors). (2004). Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

Carruthers, V; du Preez, L. (2017). Frogs of southern Africa: A Complete Guide. Struik Nature, Cape Town.

Channing, A. (2001) Amphibians of Central and Southern Africa. Protea Book House, Pretoria

Claus, B; Claus, R. (2002). Common Amphibians and Reptiles of Botswana. Gamsberg Macmillan, Windhoek.

Similar Species

Sand Rain Frog (Breviceps rosei)

Cape Mountain Rain Frog (Breviceps montanus)

View the above photo record (by Faansie Peacock) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Plain Rain Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Brevicepitidae

Identification

The Plain Rain Frog is a stout species with short legs and small, dark eyes. Females can attain 51mm in length and are larger than the males. The upper sides are dark brown to black and devoid of markings. The underside is smooth and dark, sometimes with indistinct light spots.

Habitat

The Plain Rain Frog inhabits Afromontane Forest and Mountain Fynbos along the southern coastal belt (Burger 1992; D. McDonald pers. comm.). It occurs at a range of altitudes to well in excess of 1000 m above sea level. The Plain Rain Frog also occurs down to sea level, where mountains reach the coast. The Grootvadersbosch area is transitional between winter and all-year rainfall, with an average annual rainfall of 1050 mm. Relatively dry periods are May–July and December–January. The forests at Grootvadersbosch are situated on clay soils derived from Bokkeveld shales, while the fynbos occurs on sandy soils derived from Table Mountain Sandstone.

Behaviour

The Plain Rain Frog often occurs at high densities in suitable habitats. In forest these frogs may be found in short, vertical tunnels under logs (pers. obs.). When disturbed, they inflate their bodies to such an extent that they are difficult to remove from the tunnels – probably an adaptive strategy to escape predation. The vertical tunnels are connected to a network of shallow horizontal tunnels leading away in all directions, from which they emerge to feed (L.R. Minter pers. obs.).

The Plain Rain Frog is a summer breeder that starts to call in September (H. Braack pers. comm.), forming large choruses that may continue for several days in rainy weather. Males may call from vegetation up to 1 m above the surface, (pers. obs.; D. McDonald pers. comm.) and sometimes from within their shallow burrows.

Adhesive amplexus occurs (Visser et al. 1982). The eggs are 5 mm in diameter, within 8 mm capsules, and yellow in colour. The egg chambers are c.30–40 mm below the surface and the known clutch sizes are 42 and 43 eggs, each topped with a layer of 25–30 empty egg cases (Channing 2001).

Predation by the Bush Pig Potamochoerus larvatus has been recorded, with 18 B. fuscus specimens found in the stomach of one pig (Palmer 1982).

Status and Conservation

Although the Plain Rain Frog has a relatively restricted distribution range, it appears not to be of conservation concern. Overutilisation of indigenous forests and the creation of exotic timber plantations during the past century or more undoubtedly impacted some populations, but the species is still abundant at several localities. It is known from the following protected areas: Tsitsikamma National Park (Carruthers and Robinson 1977; Branch and Hanekom 1987), Outeniqua Conservation Area, Grootvadersbosch Nature Reserve, and Marloth Nature Reserve.

Distribution

The Plain Rain Frog is endemic to the southern Cape Fold Mountains in the Western and Eastern Cape provinces of South Africa. It occupies a narrow, linear strip along the south-facing slopes of the mountain ranges that run parallel to the coast, from the Langeberg Mountains near Swellendam (3320CD) in the west, to Dieprivier Forest near Kareedouw Pass (3324DC) in the east.

An aural record from Zuurberg (3325BC; H.H. Braack pers. comm.) is not shown on the map and requires confirmation. B. fuscus is sympatric with B. acutirostris at Grootvadersbosch Nature Reserve (3320DD) and adjacent grid cells, and with B. montanus over most of its range. The distribution pattern of this species is, for the most part, continuous except for a break between the Langeberg and Outeniqua mountains. Speculation that B. fuscus might occur at Joubertina, Niekerksberg, and Prince Alfred Pass (Burger 1992) has not been confirmed. Calls heard at Joubertina were subsequently attributed to B. adspersus pentheri (pers. obs.), and the other records require verification.

Further Resources

The use of photographs by Christiaan Steenkamp, Damian van Aswegen, and Faansie Peacock is acknowledged.

Plain Rain Frog Breviceps fuscus Hewitt, 1925

Other Common Names: Black Rain Frog Frog (Alt. English); Gewone Janblom (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format: Burger, M; Tippett, RM. (2025). Plain Rain Frog Breviceps fuscus. Biodiversity and Development Institute, Cape Town. Available online at https://thebdi.org/2022/01/25/plain-rain-frog-breviceps-fuscus/

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas: Burger, M. (2004). Plain Rain Frog Breviceps fuscus. In Minter LR et al 2004.

References: 

Minter, LR; Burger, M; Harrison, JA; Braack, HH; Bishop, PJ; Kloepfer, D. (Editors). (2004). Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

Carruthers, V; du Preez, L. (2017). Frogs of southern Africa: A Complete Guide. Struik Nature, Cape Town.

Channing, A. (2001) Amphibians of Central and Southern Africa. Protea Book House, Pretoria

Claus, B; Claus, R. (2002). Common Amphibians and Reptiles of Botswana. Gamsberg Macmillan, Windhoek.

Similar Species

Strawberry Rain Frog (Breviceps acutirostris)

Cover photo by Kyle Finn.

Find the Bushveld Rain Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Brevicepitidae

Identification

The Bushveld Rain Frog is a medium-sized species. Males attain 47mm in length, while females can reach 60mm. The limbs are stubby and the head is short. The dorsal surface is rough and granular, with variable colourations and patterning, but is most often brown with paired paler, yellowish patches. Variable darker markings are also present, including a blackish stripe running from the eye toward the armpit. The undersides are smooth and white with some darker mottling and two black patches on the throat.

Habitat

The Bushveld Rain Frog inhabits seasonally dry to semi-arid habitats in the Savanna Biome, with sandy to sandy-loam soils. It is particularly associated with bushveld vegetation types that are characterised by “a grassy ground layer and a distinct upper layer of woody plants” (Low and Rebelo 1996). It is conspicuously absent from the Grassland and Forest biomes.

The subspecies B. a. pentheri occurs in Eastern Thorn Bushveld, Spekboom Succulent Thicket, and Valley Thicket. In Polokwane and Grahamstown, parks and gardens with well-turned, sandy soil contain breeding populations of both B. a. adspersus and B. a. pentheri, indicating that this species can survive in a suburban environment.

Behaviour

Bushveld Rain Frogs spend the winter dry season 15–30 cm below the surface, often in situations where soil moisture is conserved, for example, next to or under rocks, logs, stumps, or tree roots (Jacobsen 1989; pers. obs.).

In spring or early summer, following heavy rain, male Bushveld Rain Frogs emerge from the soil and establish call sites 5–200 cm from their winter retreats. The call site usually consists of a well-concealed shallow depression, about the depth of the frog’s body, at the base of a grass tuft or small herbaceous plant. In overcast, damp conditions, calling may continue unchecked for several days and nights. Males are prompted to call by the calls of their immediate neighbours, and this results in bouts of calling which spread through the population in waves. When hot, dry weather returns, or when disturbed, males retreat to their underground burrows. Males were observed to use the same call site for up to five consecutive nights (Minter 1995, 1998).

Amplexus is facilitated by a sticky skin secretion which ensures that the male remains attached to the female during nest construction. A mass of about 45 eggs, covered by a smaller mass of fluid-filled jelly capsules lacking yolk, is deposited in a chamber about 30 cm below the surface. The female remains nearby until the froglets are ready to leave the nest (approximately six weeks). The reason for her presence has not been established (Minter 1995, 1998).

Status and Conservation

The Bushveld Rain Frog does not appear to be at risk as much of its habitat is used for game and cattle farming, and is relatively undisturbed. It also occurs in a number of provincial nature reserves and national parks.

Distribution

Beyond the atlas region, the Bushveld Rain Frog occurs in Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe, southern Zambia, and Mozambique (Poynton and Broadley 1985a). In the atlas region, the subspecies B. a. adspersus occurs in its preferred habitat throughout most of Limpopo and North West provinces, the northern Free State, the eastern parts of the Northern Cape, Gauteng, Mpumalanga, and central and eastern eSwatini (Swaziland). In KwaZulu-Natal, it is found at lower elevations, as far south as Margate (3030CD).

Call data and molecular evidence (Minter 1998; Engelbrecht and Mulder 2000) support the retention of the subspecies B. a. pentheri in the Eastern Cape, where it is distributed from Joubertina (3323DD) inland to Grahamstown (3326BC), and northward as far as the Stutterheim district (3227BC). Populations from the Great Escarpment of KwaZulu-Natal and Mpumalanga, e.g., near Wakkerstroom (2730AD), previously referred to B. a. pentheri by Poynton (1964), were assigned to B. mossambicus on the basis of advertisement call structure (Minter 1998).

Light paravertebral and dorsolateral patches on the dorsum of the Bushveld Rain Frog distinguish this species from northern Mozambique populations of B. mossambicus, which lack these markings (Poynton 1964; Poynton and Broadley 1985a; Lambiris 1989a; Minter 1998). However, this is not the case in the atlas region, where similar markings are present in B. sopranus, B. bagginsi, and in populations of B. mossambicus from the Great Escarpment and coastal KwaZulu-Natal (see B. mossambicus species account).

A study of advertisement calls (Minter 1998) did not support the hypothesis that B. adspersus and B. mossambicus hybridize extensively in KwaZulu-Natal (Poynton 1964; Poynton and Broadley 1985a; Lambiris 1989a). The hybridization hypothesis was based on dorsal markings that do not constitute a reliable diagnostic character. Therefore, existing museum and literature records of B. adspersus from KwaZulu-Natal, unless based on advertisement calls, should be regarded as unreliable. A survey based on advertisement calls is needed in order to re-map the distribution of B. adspersus in the northeastern parts of the atlas region, and the atlas data from the pre-1996 period should be viewed with circumspection.

Further Resources

The use of photographs by Alison Sharp, Kyle Finn, Karis Daniel, and Vaughan Jessnitz is acknowledged.

Bushveld Rain Frog Breviceps adspersus Peters, 1882

Other Common Names: Common Rain Frog (Alt. English); Bosveld Reenpadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format: Minter, LR; Tippett, RM. (2025). Bushveld Rain Frog Breviceps adspersus. Biodiversity and Development Institute, Cape Town. Available online at https://thebdi.org/2022/01/24/bushveld-rain-frog-breviceps-adspersus/

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas: Minter, LR. (2004). Bushveld Rain Frog Breviceps adspersus. In Minter LR et al 2004.

References: 

Minter, LR; Burger, M; Harrison, JA; Braack, HH; Bishop, PJ; Kloepfer, D. (Editors). (2004). Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

Carruthers, V; du Preez, L. (2017). Frogs of southern Africa: A Complete Guide. Struik Nature, Cape Town.

Channing, A. (2001) Amphibians of Central and Southern Africa. Protea Book House, Pretoria

Claus, B; Claus, R. (2002). Common Amphibians and Reptiles of Botswana. Gamsberg Macmillan, Windhoek.

Similar Species

Mozambique Rain Frog (Breviceps mossambicus)

Cover photo by J. Heymans.

Find the Strawberry Rain Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Brevicepitidae

Identification

The female Strawberry Rain Frog attains a maximum length of 40mm. Males are much smaller, reaching just 25mm in length. The body is stout with short legs, and the snout is slightly more pointed than in other Breviceps species. The dorsal surface is reddish or pink to creamy white with many elevated black granules. The undersides are purplish with cream-coloured spots.

Habitat

The Strawberry Rainfrog occurs only in areas of high rainfall in uplands and mountains, both in Mountain Fynbos and in Afromontane Forest. Where mountains reach the coast, the species can occur at sea level (e.g. Betty’s Bay 3418BD; Grootbos 3419CB). The soils in these habitats are coarse, acidic sands derived from Table Mountain Sandstone, frequently admixed with peaty deposits.

Behaviour

Calling occurs both at night and during the day, usually during and after rain showers in winter and spring (June–November), but dense mist may be sufficient to stimulate calling. In Grootvadersbosch forest, males have been observed calling from above the ground, on top of logs (C.N. Spottiswoode pers. comm.; H. Braack pers. comm). In fynbos, the species has been found calling above ground in dense vegetation (M. Burger pers. comm), and from short burrows situated below low, covering vegetation (pers. obs.). Adhesive amplexus is employed during mating.

An amplexed pair, with a freshly laid egg mass comprising 24 eggs, was unearthed in Mountain Fynbos in the Boosmansbos Wilderness Area, on 22 October 1986 (D. McDonald pers. comm.). The pair was found in a chamber at the lower end of a network of tunnels covering an area of about 1 m². Some branches of the tunnels ended blindly while others formed loops off the main tunnel leading to the egg chamber. The nest site was located on a cool, moist slope in sandy loam soil, covered by prostrate Cliffortia ferruginea. The eggs measured 6.5–7.8 mm (mean = 7) in diameter (L.R. Minter unpubl. data).

Little is known about the biology of this species. Studies of the differences in call structure and habitat partitioning between B. acutirostris and B. fuscus, in areas of sympatry, would be of particular interest.

Status and Conservation

The montane habitat of the Strawberry Rain Frog is generally little disturbed and occurs within a number of protected areas such as the Marloth Nature Reserve, Boosmansbos Wilderness Area, and Grootvadersbosch State Forest. This species is not threatened.

Distribution

The Strawberry Rain Frog is restricted to the southwestern ranges of the Cape Fold Mountains. The most westerly range in which it occurs is the Hottentotsholland Mountains (3318DD, 3418BB), the most easterly the Langeberg Mountains (3321CD); these ranges also represent the northern limits of the species. The map indicates a gap in distribution corresponding to the eastern Hottentotsholland and Riviersonderend mountains; this apparent absence requires confirmation. The species does not occur on the Cape Peninsula. The eastern extremities of its range overlap that of B. fuscus.

The atlas records are reliable, but sparse. Additional surveys may fill some of the gaps, especially in mountainous areas not adequately covered during the atlas project. The advertisement calls of B. acutirostris and B. fuscus are quite similar in structure (Passmore and Carruthers 1995; Channing 2001) although the call rate is distinctly faster in acutirostris (L.R. Minter pers. obs). In areas where both species may occur, aural records should have been supported by tape recordings of the calls, and by voucher specimens. This was seldom done, resulting in the possibility of some misidentifications.

Further Resources

The use of photographs by J. Heymans, Felicity Grundlingh, and Trevor Hardaker is acknowledged.

Strawberry Rain Frog Breviceps acutirostris Poynton, 1963

Other Common Names: Cape Short-headed Frog (Alt. English); Aarbei-blaasoppadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format: Harrison, JA; Tippett, RM. (2025). Strawberry Rain Frog Breviceps acutirostris. Biodiversity and Development Institute, Cape Town. Available online at https://thebdi.org/2022/01/24/strawberry-rain-frog-breviceps-acutirostris/

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas: Harrison, JA. (2004). Strawberry Rain Frog Breviceps acutirostris. In Minter LR et al 2004.

References: 

Minter, LR; Burger, M; Harrison, JA; Braack, HH; Bishop, PJ; Kloepfer, D. (Editors). (2004). Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

Carruthers, V; du Preez, L. (2017). Frogs of southern Africa: A Complete Guide. Struik Nature, Cape Town.

Channing, A. (2001) Amphibians of Central and Southern Africa. Protea Book House, Pretoria

Claus, B; Claus, R. (2002). Common Amphibians and Reptiles of Botswana. Gamsberg Macmillan, Windhoek.

Similar Species

Plain Rain Frog (Breviceps fuscus)

View the above photo record (by Cornelia Rautenbach) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Guinea Shovel-nosed Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Hemisotidae

GUINEA SHOVEL-NOSED FROG – Hemisus guineensis

Cope, 1865

Habitat

Channing (2001: 122) recorded the habitat of H. guineensis as “grassland and open bush where temporary pans are formed in the rainy season”. The recorded localities for H. g. broadleyi in Limpopo Province are situated in Mopane Bushveld in the Savanna Biome.

Behaviour

Little is known of the biology of this frog. Its breeding behaviour is probably similar to that of the other species in the genus.

Status and Conservation

In the atlas region, H. guineensis has a peripheral distribution. Although it is not known to occur in any protected areas, the areas from which it has been recorded do not appear to be seriously threatened by habitat loss or degradation.

Distribution

H. guineensis broadleyi, a subspecies of the West African H. guineensis, is distributed through Angola, northern Botswana, Zimbabwe, Zambia and Mozambique.

Museum specimens collected at two localities in Limpopo Province: the farms Bridgewater (263MS; 2229CA), 25 km northeast of Alldays, and Rochdale (700MS; 2229DC), 8 km east of Waterpoort, have been assigned to this species (Poynton and Broadley 1985a; Jacobsen 1989). However, Poynton and Broadley (1985a) experienced difficulty in separating some specimens of H. g. broadleyi from H. marmoratus, using the morphological criteria identified by Laurent (1972). They suggested that in this area a complex situation exists, involving intergradation between the two taxa, and noted that the problem could only be resolved by the collection of field data and a larger series of specimens.

Similarly, Channing and Griffin (1993) reported an extreme range of morphological variation in a sample of 50 Hemisus specimens collected in the Caprivi, on the basis of which some individuals could be assigned to H. marmoratus and others to H. guineensis microps. However, only one call type was heard during three months of field work, and they concluded that only H. marmoratus was present in the Caprivi.

Channing’s (2001) description of the advertisement calls of H. marmoratus and H. g. broadleyi indicates a difference of 1000 Hz in emphasized frequency, while the pulse rate of H. g. broadleyi is approximately half that of H. marmoratus. When this part of Limpopo Province was surveyed during the atlas period, no calls were heard that could be attributed to H. g. broadleyi or to intergrades. H. marmoratus was heard calling at a number of localities in Limpopo Province, but the calls did not differ from those of H. marmoratus from other parts of the atlas region (pers. obs).

Thus it seems that H. g. broadleyi, if present at all, must occur in very low numbers in the atlas region. This is an open question that invites further investigation in the form of more intensive surveys in the area between the Soutpansberg Mountains and the Limpopo River.

No map is currently available for this species.

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Guinea Snout-burrower (Alternative English Name); Guinease Graafneuspadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

Minter LR, Tippett RM.  Guinea Shovel-nosed Frog Hemisus guineensis. BDI, Cape Town.
Available online at http://thebdi.org/2022/01/23/guinea-shovel-nosed-frog-hemisus-guineensis/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

Minter LR 2004 Hemisus guineensis Guinea Shovel-nosed Frog. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

View the above photo record (by Jean Paul Brouard) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Natal Leaf-folding Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Hyperoliidae

NATAL LEAF-FOLDING FROG – Afrixalus spinifrons

(Cope, 1862)

Identification

This species belongs to the dwarf Afrixalus complex, whose members are difficult to distinguish from one another morphologically, but whose advertisement calls are diagnostic (Backwell and Passmore 1991). A. spinifrons may be distiguished from sympatric Hyperolius species by the presence of a vertical pupil and tiny asperities on the skin.

The distribution and structure of the asperities is variable. In 60% of A. s. spinifrons males, there is a concentration of tubercular asperities on the snout, that is moderately to markedly swollen, almost bulbous. Along the Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal coast, this character may be used to distinguish A. spinifrons from the other sympatric dwarf Afrixalus species, namely A. delicatus and A. aureus. However, at higher altitudes, populations assigned to A. s. intermedius lack a swollen snout and the asperities are distributed evenly over the dorsum (Pickersgill 1984, 1996, 2000).

In A. s. spinifrons, the dorsum is ivory to golden yellow with a broad, brown, median wedge that starts at the tip of the snout and broadens posteriorly, where it is split in two by a narrow light-coloured wedge over the urostyle. In A. s. intermedius, these dark markings are absent or confined to the posterior part of the dorsum. The light to dark, lateral band present in all dwarf Afrixalus species, is unmarked in A. spinifrons but speckled to a varying extent in A. aureus and A. delicatus. A dark, transverse band on the tibia distinguishes A. aureus from A. spinifrons. (Pickersgill 1984, 1996, 2000; Passmore and Carruthers 1995).

The advertisement calls of A. spinifrons and A. delicatus consist of two components, a short “zip” and a prolonged “trill”, while A. aureus produces only the trill component. It has been demonstrated that the trill component functions in female attraction in A. delicatus and A. aureus, and that females only respond to calls of their own species. A similar function is presumed for A. spinifrons (Backwell and Passmore 1991).

In A. s. spinifrons, the trill component has a lower emphasized frequency and a higher pulse rate than that of A. delicatus (Backwell and Passmore 1991; Passmore and Carruthers 1995; Pickersgill 1996). The published call data are based on small samples and exhibit a wide range of variation. Further investigation of the differences in advertisement call within the A. spinifrons complex is needed (see also comments under A. knysnae).

A. spinifrons bears a close resemblance to A. knysnae, but is slightly smaller (16.4–24.6 mm versus 22.0–25.2 mm) and has a larger gular disc (Pickersgill 1996, 2000). The ranges of the two species are separated by about 400 km.

Habitat

A. spinifrons inhabits Coastal Bushveld-Grassland and Moist Upland Grassland. Armstrong (2001), using the Biosource Programme, modelled the potential distribution range of A. s. intermedius to include these vegetation types: Moist Coast Hinterland Ngongoni Veld, Moist Midlands Mistbelt, Moist Highland Sour Veld and Dry Highland Sour Veld (Harrison et al. 2001). In low-lying areas along the coast, A. s. spinifrons breeds in standing water, in dense sedge beds and inundated, grassy wetlands with abundant surface vegetation, while at higher altitudes, it inhabits marshes, dams, floodplains and riverbanks (Lambiris 1989a; Pickersgill 1996).

Behaviour

During the day, both subspecies retreat into the leaf axils of grasses, rushes and arum lilies Zantedeschia spp., particularly those standing in or immediately adjacent to water, and A. s. intermedius may also be found sunbathing in arum lily blooms. This habit is adopted almost exclusively by females and juveniles (Pickersgill 1996). In winter, A. s. spinifrons is often encountered in the leaf axils of Strelitzia and bananas.

Breeding activity has been reported August–February for A. s. spinifrons, and September–January for A. s. intermedius. Males call from emergent vegetation in ponds, dams and streams, in relatively high-density choruses of 4–20 individuals, between sunset and 03:00 (Backwell and Passmore 1991). The white eggs are deposited in longitudinally folded leaves of grasses, young Phragmites and herbaceous plants (particularly Commelina spp.), just below or above the water, and hatch 4–6 days later. Metamorphosis typically occurs within about six weeks (Backwell and Passmore 1991; Pickersgill 1996, 2000).

Predators include water snakes Lycodonomorphus spp., green snakes Philothamnus spp. and the Rhombic Night Adder Causus rhombeatus. Prey items include mosquitoes and other flies, spiders and moths (M.P. pers obs.).

Status and Conservation

Status

During the atlas period, few records of this species were obtained (see table). Although not evaluated by Harrison et al. (2001), assessment for this publication placed it in the Vulnerable category on the basis of its extent of occurrence (<20 000 km²) and area of occupancy (<2000 km²), a severely fragmented range, a perceived continuing decline in area of occupancy, numbers of individuals and locations, and a decrease in the area and quality of its habitat.

The KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Services has listed A. s. intermedius as a taxon of special significance because it is endemic to the province (Armstrong 2001).

Threats

The KwaZulu-Natal coast has several threatened frog species (Burger and Harrison 2002). This region has been extensively altered by urban and industrial developments, sugar cane plantations, timber plantations and infestations of alien vegetation, all of which have negatively affected biodiversity (Johnson 1987; Johnson and Raw 1987; Alexander 1990; Armstrong et al. 1998). These activities are the primary factors responsible for excessive loss and fragmentation of A. spinifrons habitat. Many of the surviving populations are small and localized and therefore more susceptible to catastrophic events that could result in local extinctions. Further threats to this species include pesticide pollution of breeding habitats, and trampling of habitat by livestock.

Recommended conservation actions

Historical localities should be revisited to establish the status of populations. In the course of such surveys, it is recommended that recordings of advertisement calls be collected along with specimens and tissue samples.

Armstrong (2001) noted that the species was inadequately conserved with only 2.8% of its predicted range falling within protected areas. A. spinifrons was predicted to occur in 12 KwaZulu-Natal protected areas, nine of which could potentially maintain viable populations, the largest being the uKhahlamba-Drakensberg Park (3864 ha). Although Armstrong’s (2001) assessment was based only on a subset of the species’ range, omitting the coastal populations, the species is clearly not adequately protected and it is therefore recommended that a series of known viable populations be evaluated with the aim of incorporating them into the network of protected areas. Protected areas in coastal KwaZulu-Natal, from which this species is known, include reserves at St. Lucia and Mtunzini. In Eastern Cape Province it is known from Hluleka and Silaka nature reserves.

Some general recommendations include habitat management, limiting factor management, monitoring, and public education. Future EIAs for urban, industrial, agricultural and forestry developments along the KwaZulu-Natal and Eastern Cape coast, should take cognisance of the conservation status of A. spinifrons and of potential impacts on its habitat, and should mitigate their plans accordingly.

Distribution

A. spinifrons is endemic to South Africa. The subspecies A. s. spinifrons occurs at low to intermediate altitudes from Cintsa Bay (3228CC) and Kei Road (3227DA) in Eastern Cape Province, to St. Lucia Village (2832AD) in KwaZulu-Natal. The subspecies A. s. intermedius occurs at altitudes above 1000 m in western KwaZulu-Natal, between Underberg (2929CD) and Hilton/Cedara (2930CB; Pickersgill 1996). In the course of the atlas survey, additional populations were discovered near Franklin (3029BC) and Umtata (3128DB). Populations in Eastern Cape and KwaZulu-Natal provinces, previously referred to A. knysnae by Poynton (1964), were assigned to A. s. spinifrons by Pickersgill (1996).

Unlike most frog species sharing its breeding habitat, A. spinifrons has a rather quiet call. This may be a factor contributing to the paucity of atlas records and the patchy distribution reflected on the map.

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Natal Spiny Reed Frog, Spinose Dwarf Leaf-folding Frog, Natalse Blaarvouendepadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

Pickersgill M, Burger M, Bishop PJ, Tippett RM.  Natal Leaf-folding Frog Afrixalus spinifrons. BDI, Cape Town.
Available online at http://thebdi.org/2022/01/21/natal-leaf-folding-frog-afrixalus-spinifrons/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

Pickersgill M, Burger M, Bishop PJ 2004 Afrixalus spinifrons Natal Leaf-folding Frog. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.