View the above photo record (by Faansie Peacock) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Knysna Leaf-folding Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Hyperoliidae

KNYSNA LEAF-FOLDING FROG – Afrixalus knysnae

(Loveridge, 1954)

Identification

The presence of a vertical pupil and minute asperities (spines), distributed uniformly over the dorsal, and posterior ventral skin of the body, and the dorsal skin of the limbs, distinguish A. knysnae from the morphologically similar, and sympatric, Hyperolius marmoratus and H. horstockii. The asperities are more conspicuous in males than in females. Body length is 22–25.2 mm (Pickersgill 1996).

A. knysnae does not occur in sympatry with any other Afrixalus species. A. spinifrons has a shorter body (16.4–22.6 mm; Pickersgill 1996). In A. knysnae the snout is not noticeably swollen or bulbous, nor is there a concentration of tubercular asperities in this region, as is the case in most male A. s. spinifrons (but not A. s. intermedius). The gular disc is smaller and transversely oval to round in A. knysnae whereas, in both subspecies of A. spinifrons, the disc covers most of the gular surface (Pickersgill 1996).

The following description of the advertisement call is based on calls recorded at Covie on 17 September 2002 at 15–20°C (H. Braack and M. Burger unpubl. data). These calls consisted of two parts: a short “zip” and a longer “trill”, as in A. delicatus and A. spinifrons. The duration of 13 trills from three individuals was 0.16–2.64 s; the pulse rate was 24–29 pulses/s; and the emphasized frequency was 2.9–3.6 kHz. Three zip calls from one individual had a duration of 0.06–0.09 s; a pulse rate of 209–230 pulses/s; and an emphasized frequency of 3.2–3.3 kHz.

Larger samples of advertisement calls from single populations, recorded during moderate- to high-intensity choruses, and adjusted to a common air temperature and body mass, are needed to differentiate more clearly between the calls of A. knysnae, A. delicatus and A. spinifrons.

Habitat

A. knysnae inhabits a coastal mosaic of Mountain Fynbos and Afromontane Forest in the Outeniqua District centre of endemism of the Coastal Mountain biogeographical province (Branch and Hanekom 1987). FitzSimons (1946) recorded specimens in glades, clearings and roadside pools at Diepwalle (= Deepwalls; 3323CA), while Pickersgill (2000) collected juveniles from “arum blooms on boggy ground near an irrigation dam at Barrington” (3322DD). A few of the known localities are situated in pristine habitat but the remainder have been subjected to varying degrees of habitat alteration and usually contain a high proportion of alien plant species.

Behaviour

The biology of A. knysnae is poorly known. Breeding activity has been recorded October–December at Covie, Groenvlei and Diepwalle, and in late February in the De Vasselot Nature Reserve west of Covie. Juveniles were collected in early October at Covie, hence breeding activity probably starts in September at this locality (FitzSimons 1946; Branch and Hanekom 1987; H. Braack unpubl. data). A female, collected at Diepwalle in early December, contained well-developed ovarian eggs (Pickersgill 1996, 2000).

During the breeding season, males were seen calling from fallen branches and emergent vegetation just above the surface of small pools along the roadside and in forest clearings (FitzSimons 1946), while juveniles were collected from restio stems along the edges of small pans in fynbos (Branch and Hanekom 1987). During the day, adults were found on vegetation surrounding these pans. Tadpoles collected at Grootkop, Knysna, were similar in morphology to those of A. s. spinifrons from Port St Johns (Inger 1989).

Status and Conservation

Status

A. knysnae was classified as Data Deficient (Harrison et al. 2001), but additional data and reassessment have placed it in the Endangered category on the basis of an extent of occurrence <5000 km², an area of occupancy <500 km², a severely fragmented range, and a perceived continuing decline in the area of occupancy, numbers of individuals and locations, as well as a decrease in the area and quality of its habitat (this publication).

Threats

The long-term survival of this species is threatened by habitat loss and alteration as a result of extensive coastal urban and recreational development, forestry and other agriculture. An important factor linked to the development of the area is rapid growth of the tourism industry. Development has resulted in the draining, impoundment and eutrophication of wetlands near residential areas and agricultural lands, and encroachment of invasive alien vegetation. Impounded wetlands are often stocked with alien fish species and this may also have resulted in local extinction of A. knysnae populations.

The breeding site at Covie, a small seasonal pan, now lies within a pasture and most of the emergent vegetation has been destroyed by cattle grazing and trampling. Groenvlei is gradually becoming more brackish (R. Hiseman pers. comm.; monitored by the Department of Water Affairs and Forestry). These threats are continuing and are likely to lead to further population declines, possibly by as much as 20% or more in the next 30 years.

Recommended conservation actions

A. knysnae is currently protected within the Tsitsikamma National Park (Carruthers and Robinson 1977; Branch and Hanekom 1987) and the Goukamma Nature Reserve (including Groenvlei). Some sections of the Diepwalle forestry area may offer sanctuary, but the species was not recorded from these historical localities during atlas surveys in 2000 and 2001. The collection and trade of specimens are unlikely to be important threats; legislation should rather endeavour to protect the species’ habitat.

The plight of A. knysnae should be highlighted so that future environmental impact assessments (EIAs) within its range can attempt to prevent further loss of habitat. Private landowners should be encouraged to participate in its protection.

Conservation authorities should carry out surveys to find and quantify breeding populations of A. knysnae. All known localities should be assessed and afforded protection accordingly. It is strongly recommended that long-term monitoring be conducted at selected sites to track population fluctuations and identify limiting factors.

Distribution

Not all workers are in agreement about the extent of occurrence of A. knysnae. The maps of Poynton (1964), Passmore and Carruthers (1995) and Channing (2001), for example, include the central to northern Eastern Cape coastal belt as part of this species’ range. A. knysnae is difficult to distinguish from A. spinifrons, and further surveys and field studies are required to confirm the distributions of these two taxa. For the purposes of this atlas we have followed the assessment of Pickersgill (1996, 2000). As such, A. knysnae is endemic to the Western Cape Province. It occurs from Groenvlei (3422BB) in the west to Covie (3323DC) in the east, and is confined to the coastal region by the Outeniqua and Tsitsikamma mountains. A. knysnae is separated from the nearest A. s. spinifrons populations at Kei Road (3227DA) and Cintsa Bay (3228CC) by about 400 km, including at least 250 km of unsuitable habitat.

The atlas data are reliable but more intensive surveys are necessary to comprehensively map the distribution of this species.

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Knysna-blaarvoupadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

Braack HH, Minter LR, Tippett RM. Knysna Leaf-folding Frog Afrixalus knysnae. BDI, Cape Town.
Available online at http://thebdi.org/2021/11/16/knysna-leaf-folding-frog-afrixalus-knysnae/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

Braack HH, Minter LR 2004 Afrixalus knysnae Knysna Leaf-folding Frog. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

Cover photo by M. Douglas.

Find the Bush Squeaker in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Arthroleptidae

Identification

The Bush Squeaker is a small species attaining a length of 25mm in females and 22mm in males. The colour pattern is variable, consisting mostly of different shades of brown. An hourglass pattern is commonly, but not always, visible on the back, and a pale vertebral stripe is sometimes also present. In contrast to the Shovel-footed Squeaker, the inner metatarsal tubercle is inconspicuous, rounded, and less than half the size of the inner toe.

Habitat

The Bush Squeaker is a forest species, but it is also found in adjacent thickets and grassland with dense cover and accumulated leaf litter. These frogs are common where they occur and are frequently resident in gardens and in alien tree plantations. Annual rainfall within the distribution range is 500–750 mm, and falls in summer.

Behaviour

Breeding takes place during spring and summer, with calling commencing immediately after rain (Channing 2001). In wet weather, males may be heard calling throughout the day and night from concealed positions in leaf litter. Clutches of 11–30 eggs are laid in damp leaf litter and develop directly into froglets which hatch and leave the nest after approximately four weeks (Wager 1986).

Food items consumed by the Bush Squeaker include woodlice and other crustaceans, beetles, and, probably, other small insects that live in the leaf litter (Wager 1986). Predators of A. wahlbergi have not been recorded.

Status and Conservation

Although the Bush Squeaker is not classified as threatened, in places its habitat is under pressure from housing development and the clearing of bush for agriculture. More detailed distribution information is needed to evaluate the species’ local conservation status. Where only small-scale disturbances occur, these frogs can recolonise gardens and similar areas of lush vegetation.

Distribution

The Bush Squeaker is endemic to the east coast of South Africa, from just south of Port St Johns (3129CD) northward to the Mozambique border (2632DD). In KwaZulu-Natal, its range extends inland to altitudes of c.1000 m in the mist belt, where it is particularly common.

Although adults are difficult to find, the distinctive, loud advertisement call is a reliable means of identification, and the atlas distribution data are therefore reasonably comprehensive and reliable.

Further Resources

The use of photographs by M. Douglas, Mark Liptrot, and Tyrone Ping is acknowledged. Other photographs by Ryan Tippett.

Bush Squeaker Arthroleptis wahlbergi Smith, 1849

Other Common Names: Boskikker (Afrikaans).

Recommended citation format: Channing, A; Tippett, RM. (2025). Bush Squeaker Arthroleptis wahlbergi . Biodiversity and Development Institute, Cape Town. Available online at https://thebdi.org/2021/11/15/bush-squeaker-arthroleptis-wahlbergi/

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas: Channing, A. (2004). Bush Squeaker Arthroleptis wahlbergi. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

References: 

Minter, LR; Burger, M; Harrison, JA; Braack, HH; Bishop, PJ; Kloepfer, D. (Editors). (2004). Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

Carruthers, V; du Preez, L. (2017). Frogs of southern Africa: A Complete Guide. Struik Nature, Cape Town.

Channing, A. (2001) Amphibians of Central and Southern Africa. Protea Book House, Pretoria

Claus, B; Claus, R. (2002). Common Amphibians and Reptiles of Botswana. Gamsberg Macmillan, Windhoek.

Similar Species

Shovel-footed Squeaker (Arthroleptis stenodactylus)

View the above photo record (by Vaughan Jessnitz) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Northern Pygmy Toad in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Bufonidae

NORTHERN PYGMY TOAD – Poyntonophrynus fenoulheti

Hewitt and Methuen, 1913

Habitat

B. fenoulheti inhabits a variety of bushveld vegetation types in the Savanna Biome and is occasionally found in adjacent grassland. Its distribution lies within the summer-rainfall region.

Although occasionally found in sandy areas, these frogs usually occupy rocky outcrops, taking refuge between rocks or on soil under stones. In these situations they occur singly or in small groups of 5–6 (or as many as nine) individuals, often together with scorpions and lizards (Jacobsen 1989). In Zimbabwe, they have also been found sheltering under shallow, loose, matted layers of sand and roots overlying rocks (Lambiris 1989b). Breeding usually takes place in temporary pools, such as those on flat rocky outcrops or shallow rain ponds, sometimes in barren areas.

Behaviour

Breeding occurs October–February in the Kruger National Park, but only after heavy rain (H. Braack pers. obs.). During the breeding season, males have bright yellow throats and call from exposed positions near the edges of rain pools or while partly submerged near the edge (Lambiris 1989a; Passmore and Carruthers 1995). Jacobsen (1989) noted that several frogs appeared on the day after an afternoon rain shower, and some of them were found in amplexus after being placed in bottles. He observed that strings of eggs were abundant at the edge of rain-filled depressions and hatched after about 24 hours.

The following observations refer to a population of B. fenoulheti from Lobatse, Botswana (Power 1927b). The species breeds from late November to late January, at which time the males congregate in shallow rock pools. An axillary clasp is used during amplexus. Females produce strings of 2000 eggs that are entwined among stones and vegetation. Tadpoles feed on algae on the bottom and sides of the pools and take c.19 days to complete their development and undergo metamorphosis. According to Channing (2001), strings of eggs are 200 mm long and one clutch consisted of only 245 eggs.

Adults feed on soft-bodied arthropods taken on largely sand-free rock surfaces. Frogs kept in sandy terraria often die after ingesting sand particles which apparently cause internal injury (Lambiris 1989a).

Predators of this species in Kruger National Park include the Snouted Night Adder Causus defilippii and Herald Snake Crotaphopeltis hotamboeia (Pienaar et al. 1976).

Status and Conservation

B. fenoulheti occurs in several provincial and private nature reserves in Limpopo, Mpumalanga and KwaZulu-Natal provinces, as well as in Kruger National Park. The species is widespread and common within its range and is not considered to be at risk because its habitat is generally well protected.

Distribution

B. fenoulheti occurs from Zeerust (2526CA) in North West Province, eastward through Limpopo Province and northern Gauteng to northern and eastern Mpumalanga, and extends southward through the northeastern parts of Swaziland and KwaZulu-Natal to St Lucia (2832AD). It also occurs north of the atlas region in Zimbabwe and adjacent parts of eastern Botswana, southern Zambia and Namibia’s Caprivi Strip, as well as the higher-lying parts of southern Mozambique (Channing 2001). A population on the western Chimanimani Mountains of Zimbabwe is treated as a distinct subspecies: B. fenoulheti grindleyi Poynton 1963. B. fenoulheti occurs at altitudes ranging from sea level to about 1700 m.

B. fenoulheti was treated as a subspecies of B. vertebralis by Poynton (1964), but was later elevated to full species on the basis of differences in its advertisement call (Poynton and Broadley 1988). Although previously considered to be allopatric, the ranges of these two species are now known to overlap in the North West and extreme western Limpopo provinces (Bates 1995; Jacobsen 1989; this atlas). A recent study of the mitochondrial DNA of bufonids confirmed the species status of B. fenoulheti (Cunningham and Cherry 2000).

The atlas data are reliable, but there are large gaps in the coverage of this species’ distribution. It is something of a mystery why this species should have been so poorly recorded in large parts of its range; further surveys are recommended.

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Noordelike dwergskurwepadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

Bates MF, Tippett RM.  Northern Pygmy Toad Poyntonophrynus fenoulheti. BDI, Cape Town.
Available online at http://thebdi.org/2021/11/15/northern-pygmy-toad-poyntonophrynus-fenoulheti/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

Bates MF 2004 Poyntonophrynus fenoulheti Northern Pygmy Toad. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

Cover photo by Nick Evans.

Find the Long-toed Tree Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Heleophrynidae

Identification

The Long-toed Tree Frog is a large frog, reaching 50 mm in snout–vent length. It has a uniformly green dorsum and a creamy white belly. It lacks the dark mask of L. mossambicus, and the dorsal mottling that is common in L. natalensis. Other characters that distinguish L. xenodactylus from the other two species in the atlas region are its longer toes and fingers with less distinct discs at their tips. The size of the inner metatarsal tubercle and extent of webbing between the toes are intermediate between those of the other two species (Poynton 1963; Van Dijk 1978b; Lambiris 1989a; Passmore and Carruthers 1995). The advertisement call consists of one or two short, pulsed croaks uttered at long intervals. Each croak is 0.1 s in duration, has a dominant frequency of about 1000 Hz, and is sometimes preceded by a soft buzzing (Passmore and Carruthers 1995).

Habitat

This species occurs in the Grassland Biome, mainly in high altitude Moist Upland Grassland that receives annual summer rainfall of 650–1000 mm. It also inhabits Short Mistbelt Grassland and North-eastern Mountain Grassland (Lambiris 1989a; Harrison et al. 2001). It is predicted to occur in high-rainfall central and western grasslands of KwaZulu-Natal (Armstrong 2001). Most populations occur at altitudes of c.1000 m, but the species is also recorded at 1830 m in the uKhahlamba-Drakensberg Park (Giant’s Castle; Lambiris 1989a).

The Long-toed Reed Frog breeds in grassy wetlands and marshes. At Mpur forestry area (3029BC), the wetland consists of a maze of eroded channels with many small, grass-covered islands.

Behaviour

Calling has been recorded in December and January. At the Mpur forestry area, males call from well-concealed positions in grass tussocks and from burrows (Passmore and Carruthers 1995), but also from the tops of grass-covered islands (pers. obs.). A captive specimen remained buried in the soil during the day, with only its head visible, and emerged and became active at night (Van Dijk 1978b). In the wild, these frogs are known to climb vegetation (Channing 2001), but field observations suggest that they are the least arboreal of the three southern African Leptopelis species.

The biology of this species is still poorly known, and its eggs and tadpoles have not been described.

Status and Conservation

Status

Previously listed as Rare (McLachlan 1978), Restricted (Lambiris 1988) and Vulnerable (IUCN 2000), L. xenodactylus is now classified as Endangered (Harrison et al. 2001; this publication). This status was assigned because of the species’ small area of occupancy, severely fragmented distribution, and evidence of continuing decline in the area of occupancy, extent and quality of habitat, and number of locations (Harrison et al. 2001).

The Long-toed Tree Frog occurs in the uKhahlamba-Drakensberg Park (Giant’s Castle and Highmoor sections), Weza Forest Reserve, and the Minerva Private Nature Reserve near Richmond. It is regionally listed as a “species of conservation importance” by the KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Service, and is protected in that province in terms of the KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Ordinance, Number 15 of 1974, as amended.

Threats

The main threat to L. xenodactylus populations is the degradation, fragmentation and loss of habitat caused by afforestation and infestations of alien plants. Of concern too is the lack of information regarding the general biology of the species, that makes it difficult to assess limiting factors and conservation needs.

Recommended conservation actions

Surveys are needed to establish the complete distribution of L. xenodactylus. To this end, Armstrong’s (2001) predictions of its potential distribution provide a useful starting point. Furthermore, the results of surveys would help to determine the predictive power of the model used. Research effort should also be focussed on life history and the identification of limiting factors. A Population and Habitat Viability Assessment (PHVA) is recommended. Known populations should be monitored and protected from further habitat loss or degradation.

It is recommended that the locality at Mpur forestry area be recognized as a site of special importance (Burger and Harrison 2002), and that it be protected and managed accordingly by Singisi Forest Products and Eastern Cape Nature Conservation Department.

Distribution

The Long-toed Tree Frog is endemic to the atlas region, occurring mainly in the southern KwaZulu-Natal highlands, but also marginally in adjacent parts of the Eastern Cape Province. The species was described from a single specimen collected 40 years ago at Underberg (2929CD), and 15 years elapsed before a second specimen was found at Mpur forestry area near Franklin (3029BC; Van Dijk 1978b). Currently, it is known from only nine quarter-degree grid cells, spanning the area from Weza (3029DA, DB) in the south to Giant’s Castle (uKhahlamba-Drakensberg Park; 2929AB) in the north. However, Armstrong (2001) has predicted a substantially larger range for this species. Note that the Franklin (3029AD) record as plotted by Lambiris (1989a) is incorrect. The correct location of this record is Mpur forestry area (3029BC). No records are currently known from the Franklin grid cell.

During the atlas period, L. xenodactylus was recorded at only five localities, three of which represent new distribution records. The Mpur forestry area (3029BC) is of special importance because it currently supports the largest known population of L. xenodactylus (at least 50 males), as well as the Critically Endangered Arthroleptella ngongoniensis (Burger and Harrison 2002; pers. obs.). The atlas data are accurate but incomplete.

Further Resources

The use of photographs by Dominic Rollinson and Nick Evans is acknowledged.

Long-toed Tree Frog Leptopelis xenodactylus Poynton, 1963

Other Common Names: Langtoonboompadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format: Burger, M; Tippett, RM. (2025). Long-toed Tree Frog Leptopelis xenodactylus. Biodiversity and Development Institute, Cape Town. Available online at https://thebdi.org/2021/11/15/long-toed-tree-frog-leptopelis-xenodactylus/

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas: Burger, M. (2004). Long-toed Tree Frog Leptopelis xenodactylus. In Minter LR et al 2004.

References: 

Minter, LR; Burger, M; Harrison, JA; Braack, HH; Bishop, PJ; Kloepfer, D. (Editors). (2004). Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

Carruthers, V; du Preez, L. (2017). Frogs of southern Africa: A Complete Guide. Struik Nature, Cape Town.

Channing, A. (2001) Amphibians of Central and Southern Africa. Protea Book House, Pretoria

Claus, B; Claus, R. (2002). Common Amphibians and Reptiles of Botswana. Gamsberg Macmillan, Windhoek.

Similar Species

Forest Tree Frog (Leptopelis natalensis)

Brown-backed Tree Frog (Leptopelis mossambicus)

Cover photo by M. Douglas.

Find the Whistling Rain Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Brevicepitidae

Identification

Male Whistling Rain Frogs range from 22–26.2 mm (N = 14) in body length. Morphologically, the species is difficult to separate from B. mossambicus and B. bagginsi. The Whistling Rain Frog can be easily distinguished from all Breviceps species by its unique advertisement call. Vocalisations consist of a series of long, unpulsed, high-pitched whistles. Each calls varies from 0.6–1.98 s in duration and from 2755–3468 Hz in frequency (N = 20; Minter 2003).

Habitat

The Whistling Rain Frogs inhabits a variety of vegetation types within the Forest and Savanna biomes. It is found in the dense, herbaceous undercover of the Sand Forest at St Lucia and Dukuduku, Afromontane Forest on the northern slopes of the Lebombo Mountains at Jozini, and the sandy rhyolitic soils of the Lebombo Arid Mountain Bushveld at Mlawula Nature Reserve (Swaziland) and Komatipoort (Minter 1998, 2003).

At St Lucia, B. sopranus occurs in forest while B. mossambicus occupies the open grassy areas between forest patches. In bushveld habitats, B. sopranus occurs in sympatry with B. adspersus.

Behaviour

The Whistling Rain Frog breeds between early October and early January. Choruses develop at any time of day, during light to heavy rain, but unless this is followed by drizzle or heavy mist, cease immediately afterward. Calling males often take up elevated positions on fallen branches or small plants, or call from the soil surface (Minter 1998, 2003). Amplexus and oviposition have not been observed.

Status and Conservation

Status

The Whistling Rain Frog is a recently described species (Minter 2003). Since the distribution and biology of this species are poorly known, an accurate assessment of its conservation status is not possible at present. It is therefore assigned to the category “Data Deficient”. The species occurs in the Hluhluwe and Mkuze Game Reserves and the Greater St Lucia Wetland National Park in South Africa, and the Mlawula Nature Reserve in Swaziland.

Threats

Outside of these protected areas much of the natural habitat of this species has been destroyed by the farming of crops such as sugarcane, and by deforestation in the Dukuduku forest.

Conservation actions

Distribution, life history and ecological data of the Whistling Rain Frog are urgently needed to adequately address the conservation needs of this species.

Distribution

The Whistling Rain Frog is known only from the atlas region at present, but may also occur in southern Mozambique. It has been recorded as far south as Mtunzini (2831DD) in KwaZulu-Natal, and it follows the Lebombo Mountains northward along the eastern border of Swaziland to Komatipoort (2531BD) in Mpumalanga (Passmore and Carruthers 1995; Minter 1998, 2003).

The atlas data are accurate but incomplete. The unusual call may easily be mistaken for that of an insect or bird, particularly when heard during the day. This may have contributed to the paucity of distribution data.

Further Resources

The use of photographs by M. Booysens and M. Douglas is acknowledged. Other photographs by Ryan Tippett.

Whistling Rain Frog Breviceps sopranus  Minter, 2003

Other Common Names: Fluitreënpadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format: Minter, LR; Tippett, RM. (2025). Whistling Rain Frog Breviceps sopranus. Biodiversity and Development Institute, Cape Town. Available online at https://thebdi.org/2021/11/15/whistling-rain-frog-breviceps-sopranus/

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas: Minter, LR. (2004). Whistling Rain Frog Breviceps sopranus. In Minter LR et al 2004.

References: 

Minter, LR; Burger, M; Harrison, JA; Braack, HH; Bishop, PJ; Kloepfer, D. (Editors). (2004). Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

Carruthers, V; du Preez, L. (2017). Frogs of southern Africa: A Complete Guide. Struik Nature, Cape Town.

Channing, A. (2001) Amphibians of Central and Southern Africa. Protea Book House, Pretoria

Claus, B; Claus, R. (2002). Common Amphibians and Reptiles of Botswana. Gamsberg Macmillan, Windhoek.

Similar Species

Bilbo’s Rain Frog (Breviceps bagginsi)

Mozambique Rain Frog (Breviceps mossambicus)

Bushveld Rain Frog (Breviceps adspersus)

View the above photo record (by Cornelia Rautenbach) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Marbled Rubber Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Microhylidae

MARBLED RUBBER FROG – Phrynomantis annectens

(Werner, 1910)

Identification

Habitat

In the atlas region, P. annectens occurs in the far-northern parts of the Succulent Karoo and Nama Karoo biomes where it is associated with inselbergs and other rock exposures. The pools of rainwater trapped in these outcrops provide breeding habitat. The average annual rainfall in this region is <60 mm, falling mainly in winter in the west (Richtersveld) and in summer in the east (Bushmanland).

Behaviour

Breeding takes place immediately after the first rains of spring or summer. Males call from the edges of small pools formed by the runoff from sheets of rock, or in the deeper rock pools remaining in drainages after the rains. Females lay 80–100 eggs in groups of 2–8 and attach them to submerged rock surfaces or vegetation (Channing 1976, 2001). These develop quickly and free-swimming tadpoles hatch within 18–36 hours. Older tadpoles are large and transparent with flattened heads and conspicuous fins, flecked with silver and gold. They are gregarious, forming schools that hang in the water column and filter out unicellular algae and diatoms (Channing 2001). The tadpole stage lasts at least eight weeks before metamorphosis is completed. During the dry season the adults aestivate in deep rock cracks.

Predators of the adults have not been recorded, but dragonfly nymphs are known to prey on the tadpoles.

Status and Conservation

The distribution of P. annectens is mainly extralimital and it occurs in many protected areas in Namibia and Angola. In South Africa, it occurs in Richtersveld and Augrabies Falls national parks, and is protected by provincial (Northern Cape) conservation regulations. In the atlas region, the habitat occupied by P. annectens is not heavily exploited, hence the species is not classified as threatened. However, quarrying and mining lead to the pollution of surface water by fuels and lubricants used to run and maintain heavy machinery, and this will affect local populations.

Distribution

P. annectens is endemic to the larger Namib region, from Angola southward through western Namibia, reaching South Africa in the extreme northern parts of Northern Cape Province. In the atlas region, it is known from the Augrabies Falls, the Richtersveld around the Vandersterrberg Mountains, and the rocky areas between Aggenys/Pofadder and the Gariep (Orange) River. These areas range from 600 to 1200 m in altitude.

The atlas survey added several new Bushmanland localities for P. annectens. The species probably occurs in other localities with suitable habitat in the Richtersveld and in Bushmanland south of the Gariep (Orange) River. The atlas data are reliable but likely to be incomplete.

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Marmerrubberpadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

Channing A, Tippett RM.  Marbled Rubber Frog Phrynomantis annectens. BDI, Cape Town.
Available online at http://thebdi.org/2021/11/11/marbled-rubber-frog-phrynomantis-annectens/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

Channing A 2004 Phrynomantis annectens Marbled Rubber Frog. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

View the above photo record (by Walter Neser) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Sharp-nosed Grass Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Ptychadenidae

SHARP-NOSED GRASS FROG – Ptychadena oxyrhynchus

(Smith, 1849)

Identification

Habitat

P. oxyrhynchus inhabits relatively moist, open savanna and woodland, and is less specific in its choice of breeding site than the other Ptychadena species, using vleis, inundated grassland and sedge pans, as well as temporary pools, such as roadside puddles and pools on rock outcrops (Stewart 1967; Passmore 1978; Poynton and Broadley 1985b). It occurs in most of the bushveld vegetation types in the northeastern parts of the atlas region, from the coast to 850 m a.s.l., which receive 450–>1000 mm of rain p.a. (Jacobsen 1989; Low and Rebelo 1996). When foraging it may enter indigenous forests and plantations of pine and eucalypts (Poynton and Broadley 1985b; Passmore 1978).

Behaviour

P. oxyrhynchus presumably survives dry conditions in the same way as other Ptychadena species, for example, by retreating into deep mud-cracks, although no specific details are recorded in the literature. In summer these frogs forage a considerable distance from their breeding sites (e.g., 600 m; Passmore 1978), and when disturbed, make use of their exceptional leaping ability to escape.

Breeding takes place October–January in KwaZulu-Natal. Males call from the periphery of breeding sites, and most activity takes place within 48 hours of rain. Sporadic calling may occur during the day and early evening, but choruses reach their peak intensity between midnight and 04:00 (Passmore 1978).

Eggs are laid in shallow water. The female raises her cloaca out of the water as the eggs are extruded and the male releases his sperm directly onto them by using his feet to form a funnel between his cloaca and that of the female. In this way, fertilization may be achieved before the eggs reach the water (Passmore 1978). Newly laid eggs float, but the slightest disturbance causes them to sink. A recorded batch totalled 3476 eggs (Channing 2001). The tadpoles hatch within two days and metamorphosis is completed in eight weeks (Pienaar et al. 1976).

Food items include a variety of terrestrial arthropods, mainly Orthoptera and Arachnida (Passmore 1978).

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Status and Conservation

The occurrence of P. oxyrhynchus in the atlas region is marginal in terms of its global distribution. Jacobsen (1989) noted that it is threatened by extensive habitat destruction and recommended that surveys be undertaken, particularly in conservation areas.

Distribution

This widespread species occupies savanna and woodland from Senegal, through West Africa and southward to Angola, eastern Namibia (Caprivi), northern Botswana, Zimbabwe and Mozambique (Poynton 1964; Poynton and Broadley 1985b; Channing 2001). In the atlas region, P. oxyrhynchus is recorded from only a few scattered localities in Limpopo Province, extending as far west as Bochum (2329AC), but is more common in eastern Mpumalanga, most of Swaziland and KwaZulu-Natal, and the northeastern part of Eastern Cape Province, almost reaching East London in the south (3327BA).

This is a robust species with a distinctive call that can be heard from a considerable distance. It is not as common as P. anchietae or P. mossambica. The atlas data are accurate but incomplete. Further surveys should reveal the presence of additional populations.

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Skerpneusgraspadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

Minter LR, Passmore NI, Tippett RM.  Sharp-nosed Grass Frog Ptychadena oxyrhynchus. BDI, Cape Town.
Available online at http://thebdi.org/2021/11/11/sharp-nosed-grass-frog-ptychadena-oxyrhynchus/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

Minter LR, Passmore NI 2004 Ptychadena oxyrhynchus Sharp-nosed Grass Frog. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

View the above photo record (by Vaughan Jessnitz) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Ornate Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Ptychadenidae

ORNATE FROG – Hildebrandtia ornata

Peters, 1878

Identification

Habitat

In South Africa, the species inhabits a variety of bushveld vegetation types in the Savanna Biome, particularly areas with deep, sandy soils. It breeds in shallow temporary pans in dry, open woodland, often with emergent grass, and has also been recorded calling from pools on top of granite inselbergs (Jacobsen 1989; Lambiris 1989a; Channing 2001).

Behaviour

Due to the fossorial habit of the species, the frogs are rarely seen above ground, except during the rainy season when adults are sometimes seen crossing roads in wet weather, or feeding on alate termites when they emerge en masse. In Kruger National Park, adults have been found under rocks and logs during the dry season, within 50 m of their breeding site (H. Braack pers. comm.).

Breeding usually occurs in early summer but may take place in mid- to late summer if rains are delayed (Amiet 1974; Rödel 2000). H. ornata is an explosive breeder. Strong choruses develop immediately after heavy rain but die away within a relatively short period.

At Hans Merensky Reserve, males started to call at dusk as they approached the breeding site and took up positions c.50 cm from the water’s edge. Amplexus is axillary and may take place early in the evening: two amplexing pairs were observed at 19:00. Several newly laid batches of eggs, found in a grassy pan on the reserve, each consisted of a single layer of eggs forming one large, floating mass. Two batches of eggs laid in captivity numbered 838 and 1171 respectively. The mean diameter of the eggs was 1.96 mm (5.12 mm including jelly capsule, n = 20).Embryos emerged from the capsules after 36 hours (L.R.M. pers. obs.).

H. ornata tadpoles are voracious predators, feeding on the tadpoles of other species. Cannibalism has been reported, although this behaviour may be a laboratory artefact (Lambiris 1989a; Rödel 2000). The tadpoles are also reported to scavenge (Channing 2001).

Much remains to be learned about the behaviour and general biology of this species.

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Status and Conservation

H. ornata occurs throughout Kruger National Park and in provincial and private nature reserves and protected areas outside the western boundary of the park. It also occurs in nature reserves in Limpopo and KwaZulu-Natal provinces and in Swaziland. H. ornata is not considered threatened, but is never abundant at any one locality. For this reason, surveys of population density and population monitoring are recommended.

Distribution

H. ornata has a wide distribution, from tropical West and East Africa, south as far as central Namibia and east through northern Botswana and Zimbabwe to Mozambique and South Africa (Poynton and Broadley 1985b).

In the atlas region, H. ornata has been recorded as far west as 2426BC (35 km northwest of Dwaalboom) and it follows the Limpopo River eastward through the northern and eastern parts of Limpopo Province. To the south it occurs east of the Great Escarpment, through eastern Mpumalanga and Swaziland to northern KwaZulu-Natal, and as far south as Mkuzi Game Reserve (2732CB).

The atlas data are reliable.

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Skilderbontpadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

Theron J, Minter LR, Tippett RM.  Ornate Frog Hildebrandtia ornata. BDI, Cape Town.
Available online at http://thebdi.org/2021/11/11/ornate-frog-hildebrandtia-ornata/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

Theron J, Minter LR 2004 Hildebrandtia ornata Ornate Frog. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

View the above photo record (by John Wilkinson) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Tremolo Sand Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Pyxicephalidae

TREMOLO SAND FROG – Tomopterna cryptotis

(Boulenger, 1907)

Habitat

This species inhabits various vegetation types in the Savanna and Grassland biomes. Breeding takes place in shallow, standing water at the edges of dams, pans, and even small bodies of water such as roadside puddles.

Behaviour

Individuals burrow into sandy soils or dry river beds during the dry season and, in the breeding season, may retreat into termite mounds during the day.

Breeding begins after the first spring rains and choruses may be heard throughout the rainy season after showers. Males call from exposed positions near the water’s edge, but are well concealed by their cryptic colouration.

About 2000–3000 eggs are laid singly in shallow water. Tadpoles reach 39 mm in length and larval development takes about five weeks.

Predators of the adults include the Hamerkop Scopus umbretta and Barn Owl Tyto alba (Broadley 1974), while fishing spiders and terrapins prey upon the tadpoles.

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Status and Conservation

T. cryptotis appears to be widespread and locally abundant, and does not require conservation action. However, its conservation status may have to be revised once new distribution maps, based on more accurate records, have been produced.

Distribution

Historical records indicate a wide distribution in the savannas of subsaharan Africa from Senegal in the west to Somalia in the east, and southward through East Africa to South Africa. However, on the basis of data available to this author, T. cryptotis appears to be distributed from Angola through Zambia to Malawi, and southward through Namibia, Botswana, Zimbabwe and Mozambique to the atlas region. In South Africa and Swaziland, T. cryptotis is known from the inland plateau and the dry interior regions.

There do not seem to be any morphological features that permit one to distinguish between T. cryptotis and the cryptic, tetraploid species T. tandyi. Their calls differ only slightly in pitch (Channing and Bogart 1996), and only a few people who collected atlas data were able to identify these species in the field. Also, relatively few tape recordings of calls of these species were submitted by volunteers for analysis. Nevertheless, M. Burger and H.H. Braack collected sufficient reliable records of T. tandyi, mainly in the southern parts of its range, to warrant the production of a separate distribution map for that species.

In the case of T. cryptotis, fewer reliable records, based on calls, are available. Had the existing data been vetted strictly (i.e., all uncertain records been deleted), the resulting map would have been uninformative. Therefore, in the interest of presenting the reader with a map that illustrates the range of this species at least reasonably well, most of T. cryptotis records (including historical records) were retained, but should be interpreted with caution. The southern limit of the range of T. cryptotis as depicted on the map may be regarded as reasonably accurate.

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Trillersandpadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

Channing A, Tippett RM.  Tremolo Sand Frog Tomopterna cryptotis. BDI, Cape Town.
Available online at http://thebdi.org/2021/11/11/tremolo-sand-frog-tomopterna-cryptotis/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

Channing A 2004 Tomopterna cryptotis Tremolo Sand Frog. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.