View the above photo record (by Nick Evans) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Pickersgill’s Reed Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Hyperoliidae

PICKERSGILL’S REED FROG – Hyperolius pickersgilli

Raw, 1982

Identification

H. pickersgilli is a small- to medium-sized Hyperolius species that reaches a snout–vent length of 22.3 mm in males and 28.5 mm in females (Raw 1982). The sexes are morphologically distinct.

Males and juveniles are light to dark brown, often with small black spots on the dorsum, and a dark-edged, white to silver, dorsolateral stripe extending from the tip of the snout, over the eye, to the groin. The lower surfaces of the limbs are yellow, while the abdomen and throat are yellowish to white. Adult males have a bright yellow gular sac.

As females mature, the dorsal colouration becomes a brilliant light to yellowish green and the dorsolateral stripe disappears, although a dark canthal streak from nostril to eye is sometimes present. The flanks are off-white to brownish white, and are distinctly demarcated from the dorsal colouration by an irregular margin. The ventrum is light yellow to white.

The males of H. argus, a sympatric species, possess a similar dark-edged, dorsolateral stripe, but the snout is less pointed and the thighs and concealed portions of the hands and feet are brown to orange or orange-red. H. pickersgilli females can be distinguished from H. tuberilinguis by the distinct border that separates the dorsal and lateral colouration in the former. H. pickersgilli is also substantially smaller than both H. tuberilinguis and H. argus (Raw 1982; Lambiris 1989a; Passmore and Carruthers 1995; Channing 2001).

Male H. pickersgilli produce unusually soft, cricket-like calls at irregular intervals. The call structure, with reference to published calls, is as follows: emphasized frequency: 3–3.3 kHz; duration: 0.1–0.7 s; number of pulses: 5–30; pulse rate: 50–100/s (Raw 1982; Passmore and Carruthers 1995). This variation may be partly due to a difference in the temperature at which the recordings were made (not indicated by the authors). A larger call sample, corrected to a common temperature, is required before a satisfactory description of the advertisement call can be given.

Habitat

H. pickersgilli inhabits Coastal Bushveld-Grassland, where it breeds in marshy areas containing dense stands of Saw Grass Cyperus immensus. The water at breeding sites is stagnant and rarely exceeds 50 cm in depth.

Behaviour

The behavioural ecology of H. pickersgilli in the non-breeding season is unknown. Calling takes place August–March, and froglets have been collected from late January to early March. Males call from elevated positions, well concealed in dense stands of sedges Cyperus spp.

A gelatinous mass of about 50 eggs is attached to vegetation, several centimetres above the water (Raw 1982). About one week later, tadpoles drop out of the egg mass into the water.

Raw (1982) noted that this species often occurs in sympatry with several other hyperoliids that also lay their eggs out of water, and speculated that this choice of oviposition site represents an adaptation to breeding in stagnant water with a low oxygen content.

Status and Conservation

Status

H. pickersgilli has been listed as Rare (Branch 1988) and as Vulnerable (IUCN 2000). Its status was raised to Endangered in view of its small area of occupancy (<500 km²), severe fragmentation of its habitat, and evidence of a continuing decline in the area of occupancy, extent and quality of habitat, and number of locations (Harrison et al. 2001; this publication).

H. pickersgilli occurs in the following protected areas: Greater St Lucia Wetland Park, Umlalazi Game Reserve and Twinstreams-Mtunzini Natural Heritage Site. Outside of these areas it is protected by the KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Ordinance, No. 15 of 1974, as amended. It is listed as a species of importance in KwaZulu-Natal (Goodman 2000).

Threats

The major threats to H. pickersgilli are ongoing habitat loss and fragmentation as a result of drainage for agricultural and urban development. The pollution of breeding sites in the vicinity of human settlements by DDT, which has been re-introduced to control malaria vectors, also poses a serious threat. Increase in human habitation and changes in land use are likely to have additional negative effects on the habitat, including the spread of alien vegetation.

Recommended conservation actions

A thorough distribution survey and a study of the life history and habitat requirements of this species are recommended. Known breeding habitats should be protected and monitored (Harrison et al. 2001).

Management recommendations include habitat management, limiting factor management, public education and monitoring programmes. This species often occurs in relatively small, stagnant ponds, which are more likely to be drained by landowners and municipalities than are larger wetlands. The public should be made aware of the importance of preserving these small pockets of breeding habitat.

Distribution

H. pickersgilli is endemic to KwaZulu-Natal, ranging from west of Kingsburgh (3030BB) in the south, along the coastal lowlands to St Lucia (2832AD) in the north. At least eight subpopulations (sensu IUCN criteria) are known (Harrison et al. 2001). The species is secretive, inconspicuous and easily overlooked: for example, at Twinstreams-Mtunzini Natural Heritage Site (2831DD), an area where frogs have been extensively studied for the past 25 years, this species escaped notice until fairly recently. Thus, although the area of suitable breeding habitat is relatively small, surveys may reveal additional populations.

It is interesting to note that this species is seldom found at the same breeding sites as H. marmoratus.

The atlas data may be regarded as reliable, but incomplete.

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Pickersgill se rietpadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

Bishop PJ, Tippett RM.  Pickersgill’s Reed Frog Hyperolius pickersgilli. BDI, Cape Town.
Available online at http://thebdi.org/2021/11/24/pickersgills-reed-frog-hyperolius-pickersgilli/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

Bishop Pj 2004 Hyperolius pickersgilli Pickersgill’s Reed Frog. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

View the above photo record (by Michael Adams) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Red Toad in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Bufonidae

RED TOAD – Schismaderma carens

(Smith, 1848)

Identification

Habitat

This species inhabits a wide variety of vegetation types, primarily in the Savanna biome, but is also found in Grassland vegetation types, such as Rocky Highveld Grassland in Gauteng (Poynton and Broadley 1988; Lambiris 1989a). It breeds in deep, muddy pools or dams in these habitats.

Behaviour

When not breeding, S. carens has been found in caves, mine adits, burrows, and under stones, logs and piles of dead vegetation. It often enters houses, taking shelter in cupboards, plant pots, drawers and other unexpected places (Poynton and Broadley 1988; Jacobsen 1989; Lambiris 1989a). Individuals have even been found 2 m from the ground in trees. This toad seems to emerge earlier in spring and remains active later in autumn than most other summer-breeding species (Jacobsen 1989).

Breeding occurs in summer, usually at the peak of the rainy season. Calling has been recorded October–January in the Suikerbosrand Nature Reserve in Gauteng (Carruthers and Carruthers 1979). The low, booming call is produced while floating in water with limbs outstretched. Calling usually occurs at night but also on overcast, humid days. A large breeding aggregation at Hans Merensky Nature Reserve called throughout the night, laying their eggs in the early hours of the morning. By dawn, amplexing pairs were still present at the site but no egg-laying was observed (L.R.M. pers. obs.). Eggs are laid in double strings (cf. Stewart 1967) entwined around submerged vegetation. Estimates of egg numbers vary from about 2500 to 20 000 (Rose 1962; Stewart 1967; Passmore and Carruthers 1995; Channing 2001).

Tadpoles exhibit shoaling behaviour, forming dense clusters, 10–15 cm in diameter, that slowly move through the water, possibly aiding feeding by stirring up the substrate and creating a suspension of food particles (Wager 1965; Pienaar et al. 1976; Passmore and Carruthers 1995). This shoaling behaviour does not appear to deter predators as there are many records of fish, terrapins, birds and aquatic insects and their nymphs or larvae feeding avidly on these swarms (Pienaar et al. 1976; Channing 2001.). An interesting feature of the tadpole is the horseshoe-shaped fold of skin that extends backwards from behind the eyes to the middle of the body. This structure has a respiratory function, demonstrated by the fact that it is larger in tadpoles that are reared in polluted water with a low oxygen content. Under these conditions the tadpoles swim close to the surface (Charter and MacMurray 1939; Channing 2001).

Amplexus between S. carens and Bufo poweri has been observed in the wild (Power 1926a), but Blair (1972) was unable to induce artificial fertilization between these species. Given the great phylogenetic divergence between Schismaderma and Bufo, it seems unlikely that successful hybridization actually occurs and museum specimens identified as hybrids are probably anomalous individuals.

Status and Conservation

S. carens is not threatened. It occurs in numerous protected areas, including the Kruger National Park and adjacent private nature reserves, the Sandveld and Suikerbosrand nature reserves, and the Greater St Lucia World Heritage Area. Even in disturbed areas it adapts well to human habitation, occurring commonly in suburban gardens and homes. The ability of the tadpole to survive in polluted water favours its survival in human settlements, but adults and juveniles are often killed by traffic on roads.

Distribution

The Red Toad occurs from southeastern Democratic Republic of Congo and Tanzania, southward to Botswana, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. In the atlas region, S. carens is found from Vryburg (2624DC) in North West Province, eastward through the northern Free State, Gauteng, Limpopo Province, northern and eastern Mpumalanga and Swaziland, and southward throughout KwaZulu-Natal to Port Edward (3130AA). Within this area the species appears to be absent from the relatively cool highveld grasslands between Wakkerstroom and Dullstroom in Mpumalanga, and the relatively hot and dry Limpopo River valley.

The species cannot be confused with any other toad species and has a particularly characteristic call. The atlas data are reliable.

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Rooiskurwepadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

Theron J, Minter LR, Tippett RM.  Red Toad Schismaderma carens. BDI, Cape Town.
Available online at http://thebdi.org/2021/11/24/red-toad-schismaderma-carens/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

Theron J, Minter LR 2004 Schismaderma carens Red Toad. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

View the above photo record (by Jean Hirons) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Striped Stream Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Pyxicephalidae

STRIPED STREAM FROG – Strongylopus fasciatus

(Smith, 1849)

Identification

Habitat

S. fasciatus inhabits a variety of vegetation types in the Forest, Fynbos, Thicket, Grassland and Savanna biomes. It occurs in well-watered areas with annual rainfall >500 mm, and it is rarely found far from permanent water (Greig et al. 1979). It ranges mainly through the summer-rainfall region, but extends into the winter-rainfall region in the southwest.

In montane grassland, these frogs seem to prefer grassy areas and reed beds along streams and rivers and around natural vleis. They are also found in well-vegetated man-made dams and ponds and along irrigation canals. They can tolerate disturbance and have been found in urban parks and gardens, and at dams surrounded by alien vegetation, in commercial forestry plantations.

Behaviour

Breeding takes place mainly in winter, and seems to be associated with a drop in temperature. The first calls are usually heard in mid- to late February, but there are records of calling as early as January (pers. obs.). In Swaziland, peak calling occurs in March, April and May, and calling activity ceases in November (pers obs.). Outside the winter months, sporadic calling may be triggered by a cold front moving through the subcontinent. In the KwaZulu-Natal midlands, strong choruses have been heard in midsummer (M. Burger pers. comm.).

At some breeding sites only a few calling males may be present, while at others, large choruses may form with calling males separated by only a few centimetres. Males call from the water’s edge or from elevated positions in reeds and grass.

The eggs are laid singly in shallow water on the edges of grassy pools, streams and man-made dams. They soon gather debris and become difficult to see. Although clutch size is not recorded for S. fasciatus, a clutch of 64 eggs was recorded for S. fuelleborni in Malawi (Stewart 1967), and another of 44 eggs for the closely related S. bonaespei of the Western Cape Province (Cunningham and Henderson 2000). This suggests that S. fasciatus does not lay large clutches of eggs. Tadpoles reach metamorphosis in 4–5 months (Wager 1986).

Status and Conservation

S. fasciatus is widespread and common and is not threatened. It often occurs in remote mountainous areas, but also survives in suburbia and other human-altered habitats, and appears to benefit from agricultural activities (Greig et al. 1979).

Distribution

S. fasciatus is found in the wetter, relatively temperate parts of the atlas region. Its range extends from Bonnievale (3320CC) in the Western Cape Province, eastward through the Eastern Cape Province to coastal KwaZulu-Natal, and inland to Lesotho and the Drakensberg escarpment of Mpumalanga and Limpopo provinces and Swaziland. It has a sporadic distribution in the high-altitude grasslands of the eastern Free State, Gauteng, North West and Limpopo provinces (Greig et al. 1979; Jacobsen 1989). The species frequently occurs at sea level, but many inland populations, for example in Swaziland, appear to be restricted to altitudes above 1100 m (pers. obs.).

North of the atlas region, S. fasciatus is found in highland areas of Zimbabwe, Zambia and Mozambique (Channing 2001).

This species is easily identified by its call. The atlas data are reliable and reasonably complete. The absence of recent records from summer-rainfall regions, such as Limpopo Province, may be due to inadequate surveying during the species’ winter breeding period.

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Gestreepde langtoonpadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

Boycott RC, Tippett RM.  Striped Stream Frog Strongylopus fasciatus. BDI, Cape Town.
Available online at http://thebdi.org/2021/11/24/striped-stream-frog-strongylopus-fasciatus/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

Boycott RC 2004 Strongylopus fasciatus Striped Stream Frog. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

View the above photo record (by Cornelia Rautenbach) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Banded Stream Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Pyxicephalidae

BANDED STREAM FROG – Strongylopus bonaespei

(Dubois, 1980)

Identification

Habitat

S. bonaespei typically inhabits Mountain Fynbos but is sometimes found on the margins of forest. It seldom occurs on steep slopes or in deep kloofs, preferring flatter, more open situations near streams. Annual rainfall in these areas is >500 mm.

Breeding takes place in shallow, seasonal, marshy areas and seepages that are well vegetated, usually with long grasses, stands of restios and sometimes ferns.

Although this species has been recorded from remnants of natural fynbos vegetation in a pine plantation (Greig et al. 1979), it occurs mainly in natural fynbos habitats and appears to be intolerant of disturbance.

Behaviour

S. bonaespei breeds mainly in winter but also calls in spring and late summer if conditions are suitable. In the southwestern Western Cape Province, breeding mostly takes place from May to early August. However, calling activity has been recorded up to mid-September, and intense calling has been heard as early as February (A.L. de V. pers. obs.).

Although dense breeding choruses have been heard in ideal conditions, especially early in the breeding season, the calls are usually scattered with calling males well spaced from one another. During a 45-minute period in the late afternoon, 20 active S. bonaespei adults were captured in a 70×35 m area of seepage (Greig et al. 1979). Males have been found calling from ground level at the base of overhanging vegetation near the water’s edge, and from 10–20 cm above ground level, spread-eagled between tall grass stems (Greig et al. 1979). Although these calling positions were noted at night, calling activity appears to be mainly diurnal. Observations at one site indicate peak calling activity around sunset with only occasional calls heard during the night (Cunningham and Henderson 2000).

The eggs are laid out of water on waterlogged earth or moss at the base of, for example, a restio or grass tussock, within about 5–20 cm of temporary pools or shallow runnels of water in seepage areas. The eggs are laid singly and may either be scattered, grouped in clusters, or deposited in rows of up to six or seven eggs. The clutch size is 39–104 eggs (Greig et al. 1979; Cunningham and Henderson 2000; A.L. de V. pers. obs.). Each egg is encased in a jelly capsule c.7 mm in diameter. The eggs develop into benthic tadpoles that complete their metamorphosis in water.

Status and Conservation

S. bonaespei is not threatened. It is relatively widely distributed and most of its habitat occurs in protected areas. These include the Cederberg, Grootwinterhoek, Boosmansbos wilderness areas, Limietberg, Hottentots Holland, Kogelberg, Grootvadersbosch, Maanschynkop, De Hoop, Outeniqua nature reserves, Tsitsikamma Forest, Agulhas and Cape Peninsula national parks, and others.

Threats to individual populations include invasive alien vegetation, tree plantations, wildflower farming, alteration of drainage patterns, too-frequent fires, building developments such as roads and dams, and urban encroachment in certain coastal areas. The most extensive of these threats is probably the spread of invasive alien vegetation that eliminates fynbos vegetation and reduces water resources. The control of invasive alien vegetation is the responsibility of the nature conservation authorities for the respective protected areas.

Distribution

S. bonaespei is endemic to the atlas region. Its distribution is restricted almost entirely to the mountain ranges of the Western Cape Province, extending marginally into the Eastern Cape Province. It is distributed from Hoogvertoon (3219AC) in the Cederberg in the north, to the southern foothills of the Soetanysberg (3419DD) in the south, and from the Cape Peninsula (3318CD, 3418AB, AD) in the west, to the Witelsbos Forest Reserve (3324CC) in the Tsitsikamma Mountains in the east.

Although S. bonaespei occurs mainly in mountainous areas, it has been found at a wide range of altitudes, from 10 m near the mouth of the Voëlgat River east of Hermanus, to 1670 m near Waaihoek Peak in the Hex River Mountains (Greig et al. 1979).

The atlas data are reliable and reasonably complete.

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Gebande langtoonpadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

de Villiers AL, Boycott RC, Tippett RM.  Banded Stream Frog Strongylopus bonaespei. BDI, Cape Town.
Available online at http://thebdi.org/2021/11/23/banded-stream-frog-strongylopus-bonaespei/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

de Villiers AL, Boycott RC 2004 Strongylopus bonaespei Banded Stream Frog. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

View the above photo record (by Johan Kritzinger) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Namaqua Stream Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Pyxicephalidae

NAMAQUA STREAM FROG – Strongylopus springbokensis

Channing, 1986

Identification

S. springbokensis resembles S. grayii in overall shape, but in profile it has a sharper snout. In S. springbokensis, the foot length is less than twice the head width, whereas in S. grayii it is more than twice the head width. The dorsum is yellowish brown with darker markings edged in dark brown. A narrow vertebral stripe is often present. Breeding males have small spines along the back of their legs and webbing develops along the margins of their fingers, making them broad and paddle-shaped (Channing 2001).

The advertisement call of S. springbokensis consists of a series of 2–7 notes with a total duration of 1.17 s (7 notes; Channing 2001). The call is easily distinguishable from the short clicking call of S. grayii. Aggression and male release calls are also produced.

Habitat

In relatively low-lying areas, S. springbokensis inhabits Upland Succulent Karoo vegetation in the Succulent Karoo Biome, while on the mountains it occurs in North-western Mountain Renosterveld of the Fynbos Biome. These areas receive annual rainfall of <60 mm. In this arid environment, these frogs are restricted to the proximity of springs, seeps, small permanent and non-permanent streams and artificial impoundments.

Behaviour

At the start of the winter rains, males begin calling from well-concealed call sites, usually some distance from water. The eggs are laid out of water, in the vicinity of the calling male. They are deposited under rocks or in rock crevices, tunnels in vegetation, or rodent burrows. Development is arrested after the tadpole’s eyes and tail are well formed. Tadpoles remain at this stage until rain floods the nest and then emerge from the egg capsules to continue their development in the water (Channing 1986).

Status and Conservation

Status

S. springbokensis was assigned to the category Data Deficient (Harrison et al. 2001) but was subsequently re-assessed and raised to Vulnerable (this publication). This decision was based on the results of additional atlas surveys that confirmed the limited and fragmented nature of the species’ distribution and the threats to its habitat. The species is distributed among at least four subpopulations (sensu IUCN criteria): Springbok, Richtersveld, Ghaamsberg and Kammiesberg. The habitat of each subpopulation is fragmented.

S. springbokensis occurs in Richtersveld National Park.

Threats

S. springbokensis is threatened by habitat loss which is expected to continue at the rate of <20% over the next 30 years. Increased grazing pressure, destruction of vegetation around breeding sites, siltation of streams, and pollution were identified as specific threats. A local threat in Springbok (the town for which this species is named) is the conversion of the type locality, an old reservoir in the town, to a duck pond, with the subsequent disappearance of this species from the site.

Recommended conservation actions

Additional distribution surveys and monitoring of populations at known breeding sites are recommended. Research aimed at identifying limiting factors should be conducted so that the habitat can be managed appropriately.

Distribution

S. springbokensis is endemic to the Northern Cape Province of South Africa. It is distributed from the Gariep (Orange) River valley southward through Namaqualand to Garies (3018CA), and as far east as Aggenys (2918BD). Altitude ranges from 200–1600 m. Distribution data are difficult to collect as the breeding sites are not obvious and are often inaccessible. The atlas data are reliable but probably incomplete.

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Namakwa-langtoonpadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

Channing A, Tippett RM.  Namaqua Stream Frog Strongylopus springbokensis. BDI, Cape Town.
Available online at http://thebdi.org/2021/11/23/namaqua-stream-frog-strongylopus-springbokensis/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

Channing A 2004 Strongylopus springbokensis Namaqua Stream Frog. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

View the above photo record (by Darren Pietersen) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Knocking Sand Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Pyxicephalidae

KNOCKING SAND FROG – Tomopterna krugerensis

Passmore & Carruthers, 1975

Identification

Habitat

T. krugerensis inhabits the Savanna Biome at altitudes ranging from sea level to 1500 m, in areas with annual rainfall of 500–>1000 mm. It seems to prefer sandy soils and breeds in temporary water bodies such as large and small pans, vleis, and floodplains.

Behaviour

Breeding begins after the first rains and continues into midsummer. Males call from the open or from partially concealed positions at the water’s edge. Approximately 5000 eggs are laid singly in shallow water (Passmore and Carruthers 1975). The tadpoles and details of development are unknown.

Status and Conservation

T. krugerensis is widespread and does not require conservation measures.

Distribution

T. krugerensis is distributed in a broad band across southern Africa, from northeastern South Africa and southern Mozambique, through southern Zimbabwe and Botswana to Namibia and southern Angola. Its distribution in the atlas region is rather patchy, especially in Limpopo and North West provinces. This may be due to the fact that only distribution records based on advertisement calls have been included in the map. It is almost indistinguishable, morphologically, from T. cryptotis and T. tandyi, but has an easily recognizable call. The distribution records are therefore reliable in terms of the present taxonomic status and diagnosis of this species. The southernmost record is from Hluhluwe (2832AB) in KwaZulu-Natal.

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Sandveld-sandpadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

Channing A, Tippett RM.  Knocking Sand Frog Tomopterna krugerensis. BDI, Cape Town.
Available online at http://thebdi.org/2021/11/23/knocking-sand-frog-tomopterna-krugerensis/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

Channing A 2004 Tomopterna krugerensis Knocking Sand Frog. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

View the above photo record (by Nick Evans) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Mistbelt Moss Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Pyxicephalidae

MISTBELT MOSS FROG – Anhydrophryne ngongoniensis

(Bishop & Passmore, 1993)

Identification

The small size of the adult frog (16–22 mm), coupled with the softness of its call, probably explain why this species remained undetected until fairly recently. Males produce a soft, trilled, cricket-like call, repeated three or four times with an interval of about one second between calls. The call consists of 8–10 pulses with a duration of 55 ms, and the frequency at the midpoint is 4.5 kHz (Bishop and Passmore 1993; Passmore and Carruthers 1995). Males call in bouts of up to seven calls, often alternating with an adjacent male.

The dorsal colouration is fairly consistent with no sexual dimorphism, being a sandy to golden brown background with four indistinct stripes composed of small dark brown spots. A broad, dark brown stripe (bordered ventrally and dorsally by a thin white/silvery stripe) begins at the tip of the snout and passes through the nostril, eye and tympanum to end at the axilla. The belly is white, while the ventral surfaces of the limbs and throat are pale yellow.

Habitat

The breeding and non-breeding habitat is in Short Mistbelt Grassland, Moist Upland Grassland, and Afromontane Forest. Preferred sites are located on fairly steep slopes (30–40°) on either side of seepage channels, covered with a dense growth of indigenous grasses, but at Ngele the species occurs in Afromontane Forest. Most of the known sites are surrounded by exotic tree plantations. The frogs are usually found at the bases of grass and sedge tussocks amongst a network of loose tunnels in the humus layer.

Behaviour

In misty weather, males call throughout the day and night, but only during the night in less humid conditions. During the day males call from well concealed positions at the bases of grass tussocks, while at night they climb to calling positions about 20 cm below the tips of the grass stems and are easily seen. Males do not possess a vocal sac and produce a quiet call. Eleven to 14 unpigmented eggs are laid on damp soil or vegetation at the bases of grass tussocks. The tadpoles undergo direct development, emerging as fully formed froglets approximately 27 days after egg laying (Bishop and Passmore 1993).

Although there are no documented accounts of predators, these are likely to include snakes, other frog species and invertebrates, while prey includes ants, termites, insect larvae, and other small invertebrates characteristic of the grassland leaf litter.

Status and Conservation

Status

In the description of this species, the authors (Bishop and Passmore 1993) recommended that it be classified Vulnerable. Harrison et al. (2001) and this publication list it as Critically Endangered in view of its small area of occupancy (<10km2), rapid rate of habitat loss (>50% over the past 50 years) and an estimated global population size of less than 2500 individuals in six fragmented and isolated sub-populations.

A. ngongoniensis occurs in the Ngele Forest Reserve and is protected by the KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Ordinance, No. 15 of 1974, as amended.

The population at Poortjie, east of Franklin, occurs on land under management of Singisi Forest Products. The conservation importance of the site was brought to the attention of this tree-farming company, that has responded positively by appointing a consultant to draw up a management plan and monitoring protocol. The largest known population of Leptopelis xenodactylus (Endangered) also occurs at this site, which was therefore highlighted as one of the most important frog localities in the Eastern Cape/KwaZulu-Natal region (cf. Burger and Harrison 2002). Efforts were underway as of January 2003 to obtain permanent protection for the site, the first initiative in South Africa to establish a nature reserve specifically for the protection of frogs.

Threats

The major threat to A. ngongoniensis is habitat loss and fragmentation due to afforestation and other agricultural practices. The ongoing encroachment of alien trees and plantations is likely to alter moisture regimes, and the presence of quantities of woody vegetation can cause lethally hot fires, presenting a potential threat. Timber harvesting, which can drastically alter habitat over a short period of time, also presents a potential future threat.

In addition, all the grassland types in which this species occurs are poorly conserved, and in the absence of fire, Afromontane forest and grassy fynbos may invade these grasslands (Bredenkamp et al. 1996).

Recommended conservation actions

Urgent conservation action was recommended by Harrison et al. (2001) as rapid deterioration or loss of its habitat could easily lead to the extinction of this species. A population and habitat viability assessment was recommended. In addition, the remaining protected areas of moist upland grasslands, such as the Coleford and Himeville nature reserves, should be intensively searched for new populations of this species.

Management recommendations include the establishment of a monitoring programme, and management of wild populations, habitat and limiting factors. In view of an extremely restricted and fragmented distribution, priority should be given to the conservation and management of the remaining habitat of this species before it becomes extinct.

Distribution

A. ngongoniensis is endemic to a small area of mistbelt on the eastern escarpment in KwaZulu-Natal and the Eastern Cape where it occurs at altitudes in excess of 1000 m. At the time of the species’ description (Bishop and Passmore 1993), it was known from only three localities in the Ixopo region, all within a single quarter-degree grid cell (3030AA). Although another three localities in three different grid cells were discovered during the atlas period, the species’ area of occupancy still appears to be restricted to less than 10 km². The new localities are Ngele Forest Reserve near Weza (3029DA), Poortjie in the Mpur forestry area east of Franklin (3029BC), and south of Donnybrook (2929DD). Even the predicted distribution of this species does not extend its range significantly (Armstrong 2001). The atlas data are reliable.

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Mistbelt Chirping Frog; Ngongoni Moss Frog (Alternative Common Names); Misbeltkwetterpadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

Bishop PJ, Tippett RM.  Mistbelt Moss Frog Anhydrophryne ngongoniensis. BDI, Cape Town.
Available online at http://thebdi.org/2021/11/19/mistbelt-moss-frog-anhydrophryne-ngongoniensis/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

Bishop PJ 2004 Anhydrophryne ngongoniensis Mistbelt Moss Frog. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

View the above photo record (by Robert Tibbitt-Eggleton) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Karoo Toad in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Bufonidae

KAROO TOAD – Vandijkophrynus gariepensis

A. Smith, 1848

Habitat

V. gariepensis has been recorded from the Nama Karoo, Succulent Karoo, Fynbos, Thicket and Grassland biomes and occurs in both summer- and winter-rainfall regions. It is adapted to survive in extremely arid areas and, in at least parts of its range, it can tolerate very low temperatures. On the Nuweveldberg Mountains in Karoo National Park, specimens were observed moving about in the snow; these frogs may have been disturbed and forced to seek shelter in new refuges (H. Braack pers obs.).

The species is found in a variety of habitats, including open, sandy areas in the semi-arid Karoo, and grassland in the eastern parts of its range. In the Free State and most of Lesotho, it occurs in mountainous and rocky areas where it may be found under rocks, in burrows under rocks, and occasionally in abandoned termitaria(Trinervitermes sp.). At high elevations in the KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg, V. g. nubicolus occurs in short, sparse, open grassland where specimens have been found under vegetation or stones, in swampy areas, and in temporary pools.

Breeding habitats include a variety of water bodies, both permanent and temporary, such as streams, dams, roadside rain pools, quarries, pans, seepages and spongy bogs. The species has even been found breeding in water-filled hoof prints of cattle in the Drakensberg, and in a small pool under a leaking tap at Sendelingsdrift in the Richtersveld!

Behaviour

In Namaqualand, V. gariepensis is an opportunistic breeder. Most breeding takes place during the winter rains, but also during summer if sufficient water is available (Channing 1988). It has been recorded spawning in September and February in the Western Cape (Visser 1979a), and breeds in late summer and autumn in the summer-rainfall Karoo and Bushmanland (H. Braack pers. obs.). Tadpoles were collected during September in both Worcester (Western Cape) and near Harrismith (Free State), while in the Richtersveld, calling was heard September–March (H. Braack pers. obs.). In Lesotho, V. g. gariepensis tadpoles were collected in early October and in November and December in pools and at the sides of streams (new atlas data). Males may call during daylight hours in overcast or rainy weather, as well as at night.

Wager (1965) recorded the following breeding details for V. g. nubicolus. Strands of 100 or more eggs are laid in small shallow depressions in sponge-like bogs fed by springs on the summit of the Drakensberg. The tadpoles form a squirming mass and grow to a maximum length of 24 mm after only a few days. According to Lambiris (1988e), metamorphosis is usually completed after c.20 days.

In the Drakensberg Mountains, prey consists of small arthropods (Lambiris 1988e). Two specimens of V. gariepensis that were offered to a captive Water Mongoose Atilax paludinosus, were flipped over onto their backs and eaten from the belly, presumably to avoid toxins in the dorsal glands: one specimen was partly eaten while the second was entirely consumed (Stuart 1981).

Status and Conservation

V. gariepensis is recorded from Mountain Zebra National Park in the Eastern Cape, Gamka Nature Reserve in Western Cape Province (Branch 1990) and Richtersveld National Park in Northern Cape Province (Branch and Braack 1995). It also occurs in Karoo National Park at Beaufort West and in Karoo Nature Reserve at Graaff Reinet. In the Free State it has been recorded from Golden Gate Highlands and Qwa-Qwa national parks and Tussen-die-Riviere Game Farm (Bates 1997). Although it has not been found in Blyde River Canyon Nature Reserve in Mpumalanga, it occurs nearby in Long Tom Pass.

V. gariepensis has an extensive distribution range and is abundant, but some isolated populations may be speciating. Branch and Braack (1995) noted that “a detailed study of vocalization, supplemented with biochemical analysis, of montane isolates of V. g. nubicolus and V. g. inyangae may demonstrate a suite of cryptic species”. These isolated populations should be considered evolutionarily significant units, warranting protection and regular monitoring.

Distribution

V. gariepensis is distributed mainly south of 28°S and west of 30°E, but its range extends northward along the Transvaal Drakensberg range, through Mbabane in northwestern Swaziland, to the Lydenburg-Sabie area of Mpumalanga Province (2530BA). Atlas records indicate that the species has a much larger range in the Northern Cape Province than is shown on Poynton’s (1964) map.

Outside of the atlas region, the species crosses the Gariep (Orange) River (often reduced to a trickle in the dry season) into southern Namibia, while an isolated population is present on the Nyanga Mountains in eastern Zimbabwe. The advertisement call of the latter, V. gariepensis inyangae, is unknown, but based on mitochondrial-DNA sequences, Cunningham and Cherry (2000) considered it to be a distinct species.

The subspecies V. gariepensis nubicolus occurs along the summit of the KwaZulu-Natal Drakensberg from Mont-aux-Sources (2828DD) southward to Sani Pass (2929CA) and to Naude’s Nek (3028CA) in the southwest. It occurs at altitudes up to c.3400 m. Although specimens from this area differ consistently from typical V. g. gariepensis in certain ways, most notably in colour pattern (see Passmore and Carruthers 1995), the same characters are of less diagnostic value in populations from the eastern Free State (Bates 1995) and Lesotho (Bates and Haacke 2003).

While populations from Mpumalanga and Swaziland were treated as V. gariepensis gariepensis by Poynton (1964) and Boycott (1992), Jacobsen (1989) referred populations in Mpumalanga to V. g. nubicolus. Branch and Braack (1989) referred to two ecomorphs occurring in Karoo National Park, namely a “brightly-patterned nubicola form from the upper plateau” and “more typical gariepensis that is larger and duller in colour, from the lower plains”. Branch and Braack (1995) suggested that V. g. nubicolus be raised to species status and that certain isolated montane populations, currently referred to V. g. nubicolus (e.g., Bamboesberg Mountains 3126CA; Nuweveldberg Mountains, Karoo National Park 3222BC), may prove to be separate species. Further investigation is needed to clarify these issues.

In the Richtersveld, V. gariepensis occurs along the banks of the Gariep River, while a similar species, V. robinsoni, inhabits springs and temporary water sources. However, the latter has a substantially different advertisement call and, in this area, can also be distinguished from V. gariepensis by its orange back with green spots, poorly developed parotoid glands, weakly developed tarsal fold, small tympanum, relatively smooth skin, and relatively large eye (Branch and Braack 1995).

In Namaqualand, V. robinsoni loses the bright colouration that is typical of the species in the rocky Richtersveld and Ghaamsberg areas, and approaches the drab colour and pattern generally attributed to V. gariepensis. Conversely, juvenile V. gariepensisin rocky habitats frequently show the bright colour patterns attributed to V. robinsoni (H. Braack pers. comm.). In this area the two species may be positively identified by their advertisement calls. At Nieuwoudtville (3119AC), V. gariepensis and V. angusticeps have been found breeding in the same pools, and are extremely difficult to separate except by call (H. Braack pers. obs.).

The atlas data for V. gariepensis is reliable, except in areas of sympatry with V. robinsoni and V. angusticeps where records based on identification using morphology alone should be viewed with circumspection.

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Karooskurwepadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

Bates MF, Tippett RM.  Karoo Toad Vandijkophrynus gariepensis. BDI, Cape Town.
Available online at http://thebdi.org/2021/11/19/karoo-toad-vandijkophrynus-gariepensis/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

Bates MF 2004 Vandijkophrynus gariepensis Karoo Toad. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

View the above photo record (by Itxaso Quintana) in FrogMAP here.

Find the Paradise Toad in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Bufonidae

PARADISE TOAD – Vandijkophrynus robinsoni

Branch and Braack, 1996

Habitat

V. robinsoni occurs widely in winter-rainfall Namaqualand and Richtersveld, within the Succulent Karoo and Fynbos (specifically renosterveld) biomes, but also extends eastward into the summer-rainfall Nama Karoo, where it appears to be restricted to inselbergs in Bushmanland.

The species is generally found in or near rocky, sometimes mountainous, areas that offer numerous refugia in rock cracks and holes. Water bodies used for breeding may be temporary or permanent and are usually small, shallow seepages, springs, vleis, seasonal streams and rivers, rain-filled depressions, or man-made dams. In streams, breeding takes place in side-pools or slow-moving backwaters. Large perennial rivers, such as the Gariep and Olifants, are apparently avoided.

Behaviour

V. robinsoni is a terrestrial, partially rupicolous species that shelters in rock cracks and holes in rocky areas close to permanent or seasonal water sources. It may be locally abundant, and it shares water resources with other Namaqualand endemics, for example, Strongylopus springbokensis and Cacosternum namaquense, as well as with Tomopterna delalandii and Amietia fuscigula.

Vocalization has been recorded from March to October, usually following good rains, indicating that breeding occurs mainly during winter and spring. Males call from the bank or while “seated” in the water, from protected or exposed situations. Grappling with other males for position occurs frequently, and male aggression calls (a variant of the “meeuwing” advertisement call) are often heard. Vocalization (advertisement calls) and amplexus have been observed on several occasions in the presence of metamorphosing tadpoles, indicating that the breeding season is prolonged, or, at least, that it does not consist of a single “explosive” event.

Amplexus is axillary and, as with other bufonids, breeding males develop a black nuptial pad on the thumb. Single males have not been observed attempting to displace amplectant males and this, together with the larger female size, suggests a reproductive strategy involving selection by females.

Some 2000 eggs are laid in strings in water, attached loosely to vegetation or other objects. Tadpoles are typical of those of most southern African bufonids and development is rapid. Apparent schooling behaviour by tadpoles is caused by rapidly drying ponds; under favourable conditions the tadpoles are not gregarious. Mortality amongst eggs and tadpoles is often high because of the rapid drying of pools, or as a result of flash floods. Growth of froglets in captivity is rapid.

The diet, based on the dissection of the stomach contents of four adults, consists mainly of beetles (at least five species), with occasional termites and solpugids. An adult male was seen to feed on a male Cacosternum namaquense. Captive adults readily accepted mealworms and crickets. Predators of V. robinsoni have not been recorded.

Status and Conservation

Branch and Braack (1995) considered V. robinsoni to be restricted to small, spring-fed pools in rocky, arid mountains of the Vandersterrberg in the Richtersveld. Owing to its very localized distribution, threats of habitat destruction and water extraction for livestock farming, and increasing needs of human populations in the region, the species was considered to be “very vulnerable”. However, additional records collected during the early phases of the atlas project indicated that V. robinsoni might have a much wider distribution. Harrison et al. (2001) therefore listed the species as Data Deficient, and its conservation status remained unresolved. Subsequently, during more extensive fieldwork associated with the atlas project, the known range of V. robinsoni has increased considerably. At present, the species is not considered to be threatened and it has been assigned the status of Least Concern (this publication).

V. robinsoni has been recorded in the Richtersveld Contractual National Park and the Goegap Nature Reserve. It is protected in terms of the Western Cape Nature Conservation Ordinance (Ordinance 19 of 1974, as amended), and by the Northern Cape Provincial Ordinance of 2000.

Although the species does not appear to be unduly threatened at present, population monitoring in conservation and other identified areas is recommended. Clarification of the taxonomic status of this species is needed (see above).

Distribution

V. robinsoni is currently known from the Richtersveld, Bushmanland and Namaqualand regions of the Northern and Western Cape provinces of South Africa. Originally thought to occur only in isolated, rocky pools within the northern mountain desert region, recent atlas surveys have extended the known range as far south as the Vanrhynsdorp area (3118BC, BD), and eastward to Ghaamsberg in the Aggeneys area (2919AC). Additional discoveries are likely from springs and gorges in the rocky granite inselbergs of Bushmanland and other inaccessible areas. It is probable that V. robinsoni will be found in southern Namibia in areas adjacent to the Richtersveld (Branch and Braack 1995), and that current gaps in its seemingly disjunct distribution will be filled by further surveys. A photograph (M. Griffin) of a specimen from Rosh Pinah, southern Namibia (2716DD), has similar colouration and habitat to V. robinsoni and may be referable to this species.

V. robinsoni occurs in sympatry with V. gariepensis, and they are closely related (Cunningham and Cherry 2000). In Namaqualand, V. robinsoni lacks the bright colouration typical in the rocky Richtersveld and Ghaamsberg areas, and has a drab colour and pattern similar to that of V. gariepensis. Conversely, juvenile V. gariepensis in rocky habitats frequently show the bright colour patterns characteristic of V. robinsoni. However, V. robinsoni is distinguished from V. gariepensis by its characteristic vocalization and various morphological features, including: poorly developed parotoid glands, weakly developed tarsal fold, small tympanum, relatively smooth skin, and large eyes.

Historical records of V. robinsoni and V. gariepensis in Namaqualand are confused in that a number of observations of tadpoles and non-calling adult specimens were automatically attributed to V. gariepensis on the assumption that V. robinsoni was restricted to the Richtersveld. However, atlas data used for the distribution map of V. robinsoni are based on the calls of males (which are strikingly different to those of V. gariepensis), and these records are reliable, although not comprehensive.

Occurrence of the two Vandijkophrynus taxa in the Namaqualand region was confirmed by morphology and vocalization (Branch and Braack 1995). These authors conservatively maintained common taxonomic usage (e.g. Poynton 1964), and assigned the juvenile types of V. gariepensis to the olive-coloured, strongly tuberculate toad commonly associated with plains and valley bottoms throughout the Karoo region. This action, whilst recognizing the existence of an additional taxon restricted to the rocky areas of the Richtersveld, maintained nomenclatural stability of the widespread karroid taxon.

However, the discovery that the rock-associated taxon (V. robinsoni) is more widely distributed through Namaqualand, and is more common there than the karroid form, may necessitate a nomenclatural re-adjustment. If Smith’s juvenile types are (as now seems possible) more likely referable to the rock-living taxon, then Vandijkophrynus gariepensis A. Smith 1848 is the correct name for this taxon and V. robinsoni becomes a junior synonym. V. gariepensis will then have a more restricted distribution than currently accepted and a replacement name will be required for the more widespread Karoo taxon. In such an eventuality V. tuberculosus Bocage, 1896 (type locality: Linokana, Western Transvaal and Bechuanaland) or V. granti Boulenger, 1903 (type locality: Deelfontein, near Richmond, Cape Province) are available. Resolution of this problem may be possible if DNA-sequence data can be obtained from Smith’s juvenile types of B. gariepensis, currently housed in the Natural History Museum, London.

Further Resources

Virtual Museum (FrogMAP > Search VM > By Scientific or Common Name)

More common names: Paradyskloof-skurwepadda (Afrikaans)

Recommended citation format for this species text:

Branch WR, Braack HH, Tippett RM.  Paradise Toad Vandijkophrynus robinsoni. BDI, Cape Town.
Available online at http://thebdi.org/2021/11/19/paradise-toad-vandijkophrynus-robinsoni/

Recommended citation format: 

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas. The reference to the text and the book are as follows:

Branch WR, Braack HH 2004 Vandijkophrynus robinsoni Paradise Toad. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

Minter LR, Burger M, Harrison JA, Braack HH, Bishop PJ, Kloepfer D (eds)
2004. Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and
Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

Cover photo by Faansie Peacock.

Find the Southern Ghost Frog in the FBIS database (Freshwater Biodiversity Information System) here.

Family Heleophrynidae

Identification

The Southern Ghost Frog female attains 49mm in length whilst males are a little smaller, reaching 43mm in length. The dorsal colour varies from yellowish-brown to bright green with reddish-brown blotching. Externally, this species is distinguishable from the Cape Ghost Frog (Heleophryne purcelli) only by the males advertisement call.

Habitat

The Southern Ghost Frog occurs in clear, slow to swift-flowing streams in forested, high-rainfall areas that receive 900–1200 mm p.a. (Boycott 1982). The vegetation in these areas is described as Wet Mountain Fynbos with Afromontane Forest communities (Moll et al. 1984), but this species appears to be restricted to the forests.

In the closed-canopy forests the stream gradient is sometimes low. The water is dark brown owing to the presence of humic compounds, and meanders slowly between moss-covered boulders. The habitat resembles that of H. orientalis in this respect.

Behaviour

In August, an adult female with small developing eggs in the reproductive tract was found dead on the road in Outeniqua Mountain Pass. It had been raining earlier in the day. On another occasion in August, an adult female was collected from a soil pit, in a pine plantation, 600 m from the nearest river in the Outeniqua Mountains (P.J. Lourens pers. comm.). These observations indicate considerable movements away from breeding habitat in the non-breeding season.

Although breeding activity has been observed November–February, H. regis exhibits peak breeding in mid-summer (December–January) when river and stream flow is reduced (Boycott 1982). Adult males call from positions close to waterfalls and cascades, but also from beneath rocks in slower flowing sections of streams. At waterfalls and cascades, rock cracks, crevices and caves are formed and these are prime calling sites. Calling males have also been recorded from wet rock faces, under spongy moss and in overhanging vegetation, such as tree fern branches, directly above small waterfalls and cascades. During the day, adults have been seen out in the open at the bottom of pools. Males sometimes take up positions close to each other. Two or more calling males have been seen, only centimetres apart, under small stones in a streambed (pers. obs.). FitzSimons (1946) recorded six specimens under a single rock at Deepwalls near Knysna. The formation of breeding aggregations is also exhibited by H. orientalis.

The eggs and oviposition sites of H. regis are described here for the first time. As with H. purcelli, H. orientalis and H. hewitti, the eggs of H. regis are large-yolked and yellow. They are laid under rocks at the edges of quiet pools or under large flat rocks lying across streams (pers. obs.). Once, at around midday in the Outeniqua Mountains, a large rock lying across a slow flowing section of the Perdeberg River was lifted, revealing a pair and a partially laid clutch of eggs. Several eggs were attached to one another by a jelly-like substance protruding from the female’s cloaca. A total of 36 eggs had been laid and later another 47 eggs were released, making up a clutch of 83 eggs. Visser (1990) gave clutch size, derived from dissected females, as 114–197 eggs. However, from six clutches found either in the field, or released in captivity by gravid females, it was apparent that smaller clutches are laid by smaller females. Clutches ranged from 78 to 171 eggs (pers. obs.).

In early January, a clutch of 137 eggs was collected when a large rock (c.30 × 40 cm) at the edge of a shady pool (10 × 2 m) was overturned. The eggs appeared to be freshly laid as no development could be seen with a small hand lens. In the laboratory, the eggs were placed on stream gravel in shallow trays, with fresh water that was changed daily from a nearby stream. After four days, the tadpoles hatched with a large amount of yolk. They remained fairly still on the gravel, twitching now and then, and stayed this way for three or four days until most of the yolk had been absorbed, after which they started swimming actively. On another occasion, fertilized eggs collected at the time of laying (mid-December), hatched after 16 days. On this occasion, the eggs were kept in a plastic bag in a coolbox for the duration of a one-week fieldtrip, and this may have affected their development. After one week, the eggs showed clear development with a recognizable head and the body of the tadpole curving around the yolk.

Tadpoles are found beneath submerged and partly submerged rocks in streams and rocky pools. They are preyed upon by dragonfly nymphs (A. Turner pers. comm.). Metamorphs leave the water November–January, after c.12 months in the larval stage (Boycott 1982).

Status and Conservation

The Southern Ghost Frog is secure at present. The species’ habitat is relatively well protected in several private and public protected areas.

Distribution

The Southern Ghost Frog is endemic to the coastal mountain ranges of the Eastern and Western Cape provinces of South Africa. It occurs from the Huis and Perdeberg rivers in the Outeniqua Mountains in the west (3322CC), eastward along the Tsitsikamma and Kareedouw mountain ranges, to Jack-se-bos in the Krom River Forest Reserve (3424AB) in the east (Boycott 1982). Recorded altitude for the species is 230–790 m.

The atlas data are reliable and reasonably complete.

Further Resources

The use of photographs by Faansie Peacock, Joseph Heymans, and Luke Kemp is acknowledged.

Southern Ghost Frog Heleophryne regis Hewitt, 1909

Other Common Names: Royal Ghost Frog (Alt. English); Suidelike spookpadda (Afrikaans).

Recommended citation format: Boycott, RC; Tippett, RM. (2025). Southern Ghost Frog Heleophryne regis. Biodiversity and Development Institute, Cape Town. Available online at https://thebdi.org/2021/11/19/southern-ghost-frog-heleophryne-regis/

This species text has been updated and expanded from the text in the
2004 frog atlas: Boycott, RC. (2004). Southern Ghost Frog Heleophryne regis. In Minter LR
et al 2004.

References: 

Minter, LR; Burger, M; Harrison, JA; Braack, HH; Bishop, PJ; Kloepfer, D. (Editors). (2004). Atlas and Red Data Book of  the Frogs of South Africa, Lesotho and Swaziland. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, and Avian Demography
Unit, Cape Town.

Carruthers, V; du Preez, L. (2017). Frogs of southern Africa: A Complete Guide. Struik Nature, Cape Town.

Channing, A. (2001) Amphibians of Central and Southern Africa. Protea Book House, Pretoria

Claus, B; Claus, R. (2002). Common Amphibians and Reptiles of Botswana. Gamsberg Macmillan, Windhoek.

Similar Species

Cape Ghost Frog (Heleophryne purcelli)